Hello.
I'll take the questions in the order presented:
What does affirmative action mean?
Affirmative action is a broad term for policies and programs that seek
to promote racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in schools and
workplaces.
Here is a definition from the Council for Advancement and Support of
Education:
"Affirmative action is a catchall phrase referring to laws, customs,
and social policies intended to alleviate the types of discrimination
that limit opportunities for a variety of demographic groups in social
institutions. Specifically, it refers to both voluntary and mandatory
efforts undertaken by federal, state, and local governments; private
employers; and schools to combat discrimination and to promote equal
opportunity in education and employment for all."
Source: case.org
http://www.case.org/issueswatch/affirmativeaction.cfm
Which groups does it apply to?
Different affirmative action programs target different groups. Many
programs target ethnic groups (e.g., African-Americans, Native
Americans, etc.) that have been traditionally underrepresented at a
particular school or in a particular field. Some affirmative action
programs apply to women. Some affirmative action programs may consider
socioeconomic status.
Source: "Affirmative Action: Issues in Socio-Economic Status and
Discrimination," hosted by Seattle University
http://students.seattleu.edu/matthewt/aa.htm
How effective do you think it has been?
There are basically two viewpoints on this. Advocates of affirmative
action say that it has been very effective and has provided
educational and employment opportunities to tens of thousands of
qualified individuals. For more on this viewpoint, see the web page
"In Defense of Affirmative Action" hosted by Inmotionmagazine.com:
http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/prmain.html
Opponents of affirmative action say that it is reverse discrimination
that takes away opportunities from qualified individuals and gives
them to less-qualified individuals on the basis of race or sex. For
more on this viewpoint, see the article "Affirmative Action Can't Be
Mended" by Walter Williams, hosted by Cato.org:
http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj17n1-1.html
How has it changed with recent court decisions?
Because of recent court decisions, many race-based affirmative action
programs are being held to much stricter standards. Under the landmark
case of Regents v. Bakke (1978), race-based affirmative action
programs were allowed as long as they were not based on quotas.
However, recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions such as City of Richmond
v. Croson (1989) and Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena (1995) have
been much tougher on affirmative action than Bakke. Now, race-based
affirmative action (on both the federal and state levels) are subject
to "strict scrutiny" which means they may only be imposed to promote
"compelling government interests" and that they must be "narrowly
tailored to serve those interests." In another case, Hopwood v.
University of Texas Law School (1996), the University of Texas law
school's affirmative action program was suspended by a federal appeals
court on the basis that "educational diversity is not recognized as a
compelling state interest." The U.S. Supreme Court allowed the
Hopwood ruling to stand.
sources: "Bakke and Beyond: A History and Timeline of Affirmative
Action" hosted by University of Illinois Springfield
http://www.uis.edu/minoritystudentaffairs/bakke_and_beyond.htm
"Hopwood v. Texas: The Beginning of the End for Racial Preference
Programs in Higher Education", hosted by Mercer University
http://review.law.mercer.edu/old/48208.htm
"On the Legal Front: Affirmative Action: What’s Going On?", hosted by
Siop.org
http://siop.org/tip/October02/11gutman.htm
search terms: "affirmative action means", "affirmative action is",
"affirmative action works", "affirmative action doesn't work", bakke,
croson, adarand, hopwood, "strict scrutiny"
I hope this helps. |
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