Hello, g_zew-ga!
The power of social influence on our own actions is so profound that
volumes concerning its positive and negative effects fill libraries
and bookstores. As parents, we tell our children not to be influenced
by poor choices made by their peers. On the other hand, we all hope to
be influenced by what we perceive to be good qualities in others. And
of course, most of us hope that we can somehow influence others in a
positive or meaningful way.
Yet, you did not ask about "how" we are influenced by others , or how
"we" can become "influencers". You did not ask for "theories" about
social influence. Neither did you ask about the "types" of influences
we encounter.
You asked, specifically - "WHY are we influenced by others?"
Some reasons follow. They are extremely interesting. Yet, they are
likely just the tip of the iceberg!
===============================
WHY WE ARE INFLUENCED BY OTHERS
===============================
From "Influence: How and Why People Agree to Things," by Hal Warfield.
Selfgrowth.com
http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Warfield13.html
RECIPROCITY
-----------
"We each try to repay, in kind, what another person has provided us.
Favors have a tendency to produce a feeling of indebtedness. There is
also a feeling of obligation to make a concession to someone who has
first made a concession to us. If you are treated to lunch, what do
you say? "I’ll buy next time." Right? If someone says, "Okay, I’ll
ride in the backseat.", you may feel compelled to say, "Okay, we’ll
listen to the station you wanted to hear." It’s only fair, we feel."
COMMITMENT AND CONSISTENCY
--------------------------
"Once we make a choice or take a stand, we will feel pressure to
behave consistently with that commitment. This is sometimes referred
in sales as the "head bobbing dog in the rear window" approach.
Starting with small (seemingly harmless) requests ("This is a great
ride, isn’t it?"). Agreement can increase the chance that we will feel
compelled to agree with the next larger request ("Would you like me to
run up a few figures on that? It’s no problem."). As the head bobs up
and down in agreement we feel a need to continue to agree or seem
inconsistent."
SOCIAL PROOF
-------------
"This is the "herd mentality" idea that the more we see others doing
something, the more likely we will do it. An action seems more correct
if others are doing it. The greater the number of people who find an
idea correct, the more the idea will seem to be correct."
LIKING
------
"We have a tendency to be persuaded by those we like. Think about how
the references of friends may persuade us. Liking can include physical
attractiveness, similarity of background or interests, compliments,
and long periods of contact with others."
AUTHORITY
---------
"Our need to conform to the dictates of authority figures may seem to
have practical advantage. We are also susceptible to symbols of
authority such as a title, clothing, the car someone drives, a uniform
or other badge of office."
SCARCITY
---------
"An opportunity seems more valuable to us when that opportunity is
limited in availability. This is where we get things like "limited
time offer", "call within the next 10 minutes", or "This is the last
one in this color and size".
=================================================
From "ATTITUDE CHANGE: Persuasion and Social Influence," by Wendy
Wood. Annual Review of Psychology (2000)
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0961/2000_Annual/61855636/print.jhtml
THE DESIRE TO MAKE AN IMPRESSION
--------------------------------
1) Individuals often make a conscious choice to agree with another in
order to make a favorable impression.
2) Those who desire to make a favorable impression are influenced by
certain persuasive arguments that offer the promise of garnering favor
in the eyes of others.
==
1."Lundgren & Prislin (1998) found that when participants were
motivated to be accurate, they selected arguments to read on both
sides (i.e. pro and con) of the target issue, generated thoughts that
were relatively balanced in evaluation of both sides, and indicated
relatively neutral attitudes.
"In contrast, when participants were motivated to convey a favorable
impression to an interaction partner, they selected arguments to read
that were congruent with the view ostensibly held by the partner and
generated thoughts and attitudes that were congenial with their
partner's position."
2."For example, Lavine & Snyder (1996) reported that for people who
are generally sensitive to the social consequences of their behavior
(i.e. high self-monitors), appeals that emphasized the social
adjustive functions of voting (e.g. enhancing one's attractiveness to
others) elicited more favorable evaluations and greater attitude
change than appeals that emphasized its value-expressive functions
(e.g. a way to express values).
THE DESIRE TO BE PART OF THE GROUP
-----------------------------------
1. Individuals who think of themselves as part of a group often
conform their beliefs to the central attitude of the group members.
2. Moreover, certain individuals within the group hold the most
influence over the decisions of others.
3. Surprisingly, individuals can be influenced to accept a position
before they have examined it and truly understand the complete
concept!
==
1. "Social identity theory (Tajfel 1981, 1982) has sparked
considerable interest in group influence as well as in other aspects
of group behavior (see Brewer & Brown 1998). In the social identity
view, when people categorize themselves as an ingroup member, the
ingroup serves as a reference for social comparison, and people adopt
the prototypic ingroup attitudes and beliefs as their own."
2. "In the small group discussions examined by Kameda et al (1997),
final decisions were influenced most strongly by "cognitively central"
group members, whose initial beliefs about the discussion topic
overlapped the most with other members. The influence advantage of
prototypic members was independent of whether their initial judgment
preferences placed them in the group majority or minority. Kameda et
al (1997) argued that the shared beliefs and knowledge provided social
validation for other members' views and a basis on which others could
recognize prototypic members' expertise.
3. "Other evidence is that the influence of a group does not depend on
recipients learning the content of the influence appeal (McGarty et al
1994; see also Haslam et al 1996). Although some research has
suggested that ingroup influence is accompanied by acceptance and
learning of the message (e.g. Mackie et al 1992), Haslam et al (1996)
argue that such learning occurs after adoption of the ingroup
position, as people try to understand the group view in order to be an
effective group member.
=
THE DESIRE TO MAINTAIN A POSITIVE SELF-VIEW
--------------------------------------------
Individuals can be influenced to take on the opinions of others so
they will conform to the groups with which they wish to align
themselves.
"In social identity and self-categorization theories, the motive for
influence derives largely from the desire to establish and maintain a
positive evaluation of the self. In support, Pool et al (1998)
demonstrated that people maintain a favorable self-view by shifting
their attitudes to align with positively valued groups and to deviate
from negatively valued ones. Attitude change motivated by social
identity also can be driven by other self-related concerns, such as
striving to be true to oneself and to achieve a coherent, certain
self-view (Abrams & Hogg 1988)."
References cited in the article excerpts:
========================================
Abrams D, Hogg MA. 1988. Comments on the motivational status of
self-esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination. Eur. J.
Soc. Psychol. 18:317-34
Brewer MB, Brown RJ. 1998. Intergroup relations. See Gilbert et al
1998, 2:554-94
Haslam SA, McGarty C, Turner JC. 1996. Salient group memberships and
persuasion: the role of social identity in the validation of beliefs.
In What's Social About Social Cognition? Research on Socially Shared
Cognition in Small Groups, ed. JL Nye, AM Brower, pp. 29-56. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage
Kameda T, Ohtsubo Y, Takezawa M. 1997. Centrality in sociocognitive
networks and social influence: an illustration in a group
decision-making context. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 73:296-309
Lavine H, Snyder M. 1996. Cognitive processing and the functional
matching effect in persuasion: the mediating role of subjective
perceptions of message quality. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 32:580-604
Lundgren SR, Prislin R. 1998. Motivated cognitive processing and
attitude change. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24:715-26
Mackie DM, Smith ER. 1998. Intergroup relations: insights from a
theoretically integrative approach. Psychol. Rev. 105:499-529
McGarty C, Haslam SA, Hutchinson KJ, Turner JC. 1994. The effects of
salient group memberships on persuasion. Small Group Res. 25:267-93
Pool GJ, Wood W, Leck K. 1998. The self-esteem motive in social
influence: agreement with valued majorities and disagreement with
derogated minorities. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 75:967-75
Tajfel H. 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social
Psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
Tajfel H. 1982. Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annu. Rev.
Psychol. 33:139
========================================================================
From "Low Self-Esteem Can Be Normal Reaction To Disapproval," by
Jeanie Lerche Davis. Reviewed By Michael Smith, MD . WebMD Medical
News. (May 2003)
http://webmd.lycos.com/content/article/65/72826.htm
THE MAINTENANCE OF SELF-ESTEEM
-------------------------------
Research reveals that we all have a desire to be liked and approved
of by others no matter how vehemently we deny the fact. We will often
change our behaviors or opinions to gain acceptance of others. There
is no escaping our need to know what other think of us.
==
"Is your self-esteem affected by others' opinions? It sure is,
according to a new study, which shows that virtually everyone -- no
matter what they say -- cares what people think of them."
"We all know people who steadfastly deny that their self-esteem isn't
based on the opinions of others, says Mark R. Leary, PhD, psychologist
at Wake Forest University in Winston-Salem, N.C. His study appears in
the current Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin."
"Psychologists have noted that people in Western cultures
"underestimate the degree to which their behavior is affected by their
concerns with preserving face and avoiding embarrassment," he writes."
"The results of this study show that social approval and disapproval
affect virtually everyone's feelings about themselves, even those
individuals who steadfastly and adamantly claim that their feelings
about themselves are not affected by other people's evaluations," says
Leary in a news release."
=======================================
From "Modeling Theory." Steve's Primer of Practical Persuasion and
Influence. (1996)
http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/comm221/chapters/model.htm
FOLLOWING OTHERS IS OFTEN AN EASIER WAY TO LEARN
------------------------------------------------
We are easily influenced by the behavior of others, especially if we
see the results and desire the same. We can mirror another's action
and get similar results without thinking for ourselves.
"Three points. First, it is surprising that people can be influenced
so easily. Just by watching what other people do, we can acquire new
ideas and behaviors. Second, modeling seems to be a dominant way that
people get new behaviors. Whenever we are in a new situation, we
almost always look around to see what others are doing. Third, the
whole process requires very little thinking on the part of the
observer. Indeed, modeling is faster - you simply copy the model
rather than try to figure out everything that is going on."
"Modeling Theory operates in three simple steps. Here they are in
overview."
You observe a model.
You imitate the model's actions.
You get a consequence.
"The marvel of this theory is that people are influenced simply as a
result of observing other people (monkey see, monkey do). From the
observation of others, we learn what to do, what not to do, when to do
it, and what to expect when we do it. Very simple, very direct, and
very easy.
"After we observe the model, we then imitate. That is, when we get in
a similar situation that we had observed earlier, we now produce the
same behaviors we saw the model produce. We observe someone put a
plastic card in a machine, press some buttons, then get money. So, we
walk over to the machine, look for a place to put our card, look for
some directions about those buttons, press a few, and viola, money.
"Now, our imitation should lead to the desired consequence. We saw the
model get the money, right? If our imitation produces money for us,
too, we got the desired consequence and now we have truly been
influenced. (I watch you do it, and when I do it, I get what I want.)
If our imitation fails, then we will drop the model."
====================================================================
WHY ARE SOME INDIVIDUALS SWAYED BY SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND OTHERS NOT?
====================================================================
The following reference is chock full of interesting information
concerning individual responses to social influences. I have only
excerpted the points that pertain specifically to the "WHY" aspect of
your question.
However, you may want to read the entire chapter in case your
inquisitiveness about social influence extends to other aspects of the
issue, such as how people can resist social pressures and why certain
reactions and interpretations of events are elicited in particular
individuals.
==
From the National Institute of Mental Health website:
"Chapter 5: Social Influence and Social Cognition." A NATIONAL
INVESTMENT - A REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ADVISORY MENTAL HEALTH COUNCIL.
Printed 1995, NIH Publication No. 96-3682. (Updated: June 01, 1999)
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/baschap5.cfm
Excerpts:
Social Influence
----------------
"A long tradition of research on social influence reveals how this
process establishes and changes people's attitudes, values, and most
important, behavior. Research scientists have uncovered many of the
factors that determine when and whether individuals will choose to
contribute to a cause, obey the rules of society, persist in a task
after initial failure, react aggressively or cooperatively in
conflicts, or discriminate against minority-group members."
Social Cognition
----------------
"One of the most fascinating puzzles about human behavior is why
various people respond differently to a given social encounter, and
why a given person's responses to similar events differ at various
times."
"What determines these differences? During the past 15 years, research
exploring "social cognition" has made considerable headway in
answering such questions. This research has shown that people
consciously and unconsciously process their experiences in accord with
preexisting views (or filters) of reality. Because these views are
unique to individual social histories, each person interprets reality
in a distinct way and responds differently to events. Moreover, a
person's reactions to a given event may differ over time, depending on
which views are elicited and become dominant in response to that
event."
"Researchers have found that when people observe an ambiguous social
event, social beliefs that happen to come to mind at that moment will
influence how they interpret the event."
"Such findings are important because they indicate that our reactions
to social situations can be influenced by factors occurring outside of
awareness, thereby escaping our attempts at deliberate, conscious
control."
====================================
WE CHOOSE TO BE INFLUENCED BY OTHERS
=====================================
There is a definitely a great degree of individual accountability in
allowing ourselves to be influenced by others, especially when we are
old enough to understand our actions. Whether or not we succumb to
positive or negative influences, we certainly cannot claim that we are
without the power to choose.
==
Michael F. Broom, Ph.D. & Donald C. Klein, Ph.D., authors of the book
"Power, The Infinite Game, Sea Otter Press, Ellicott City, MD, (1999)
make some important points about choice and social influence in the
following article:
"Becoming Powerful: A Summary." The Center for Human Systems.
http://www.chumans.com/skills4.htm
An excerpt:
----------
"We can only be influenced if we choose to be so influenced."
"If a person chooses to be influenced, the amount of influence allowed
will be in proportion to the quality of relationship experienced by
the person allowing the influence."
THE SIX CHANNELS THROUGH WHICH INFLUENCE CAN BE INITIATED:
=========================================================
1. Position
--------
"The willingness or unwillingness to be influenced because of
someone's perceived position. Relevant positions could include boss,
parent, husband or teacher and, conversely, positions such as
subordinate, child, or student."
2. Coercion
--------
"The willingness or unwillingness to be influenced by a perceived
threat of some negative consequence."
3. Reward
------
"The willingness or unwillingness to be influenced by the perceived
possibility of receiving a desired reward."
4. Expertise
---------
"The willingness or unwillingness to be influenced from respect for
another's skill or knowledge."
5. Attraction
----------
"The willingness or unwillingness to be influenced by...
a. A perceived reputation or prestige
b. Some perceived special quality such as friendliness,
intelligence, beauty, composure, or sexuality.
6. Group Affiliation
-----------------
"The willingness or unwillingness to be influenced by a perceived
sense of mutual bond based upon...
a. A common cause (e.g., women's rights, work group goals)
b. A common group membership (e.g., an ethnic group, profession,
fraternity, family, social group, or network).
================================================
Finally, on a lighter note, you might like to read the following page
of quotes concerning Influence:
"Influence of Others." Best Unity Quotes
http://unityway.net/quotes/id22.htm
My three favorites:
"I make progress by having people around me who are smarter than I am
- and listening to them. And I assume that everyone is smarter about
something than I am."
Henry Kaiser
"We sell our divine inheritance for a mess of pottage when we look for
validation from people who are fundamentally confused."
Brad Jensen
"Keep away from people who try to belittle your ambitions. Small
people always do that, but the really great make you feel that you,
too, can become great."
Mark Twain
==
I hope this information has been helpful. It has been an extremely
interesting and challenging search, especially when trying to stay in
that little corner called "Why?"
Sincerely,
umiat-ga
Search Strategy
influence by others
+why influenced by others?
allowing ourselves to be influenced by others
research on social influence
why are we influenced by others?
influence on social norms
social pressure and influence |
