Hello lgl1-ga,
Studying motivational theories has been a staple of organizational
behavior and organizational development classes for a very long time
and there are lots of resources on the Web to help you understand the
theories and how they are applied in motivating employees.
Your question asks for examining how theories of motivation are
categorized. Again, there are lots of resources to help you review the
principles involved and to review the various theories. There is no
universal agreement on the classification of theories or the
terminology used to label them. Again, I’ve included lots of links so
you can see for yourself. Here are some brief explanations and
comparisons of needs based and cognitive motivational theories.
Philosophers and social scientists through the years have examined and
tried to understand human behavior and to determine if there are
consistent ways to analyze, measure and predict what people will do in
given situations. Motivation theories try to address these issues.
My review of the literature I found regarding various definitions of
“motivation” can be summarized as the internal forces in the
individual that makes them choose to act or behave in a particular way
to get what they consider desirable. I suggest that you browse through
the links I’ve found to review the more scholarly definitions.
Employers have chosen various methods to motivate employees from time
immemorial. The emergence of scientific management has led to the
development of motivational theories. The two categories you want to
examine are usually included but which theories are listed in each
category may vary at times.
“Need theories” are also sometimes called “content theories” and
concern themselves with identifying and explaining the motivating
forces that guide human behavior. They try to figure out what makes
people do what they do. The theories developed by Maslow, Herzberg,
Alderfer and McClelland are included in this category. All of these
theories identify a short list of compelling needs as the driving
forces for human behavior. Some of them hold that lower level needs
have to be fulfilled before people can aspire to higher level needs.
Others see needs as overlapping or intertwined. In terms of
organizational behavior, understanding what needs people are trying to
fulfill helps managers to offer the right incentives to get the best
effort out of their employees.
“Process theories” are also sometimes called “cognitive theories and
concern themselves with the choices people make because of what they
know, believe and expect about what impact their behavior will have on
their situation. Managers try to bring about specific behaviors by
influencing the process of how employees’ work gets done. Theories by
Adams and Vroom are the most prominent in this category.
You asked for one example of each of the two categories of theories.
I’ve collected several links for each as I completed this research.
You can choose whichever theory is most appealing to you.
This was an interesting project. I trust that I’ve provided ample
information for you so that you can complete the questions for your
assignment.
I wish you well in your studies.
~ czh ~
======================================
NEED (CONTENT) THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
======================================
http://www.accel-team.com/motivation/theory_01.html
Motivation Theorists and Their Theories
http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm
Theories of Motivation
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
===========================
http://www.accel-team.com/maslow_/maslow_nds_02.html
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
-------------------------------------------------
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1954) attempted to synthesize a large body of research
related to human motivation. Prior to Maslow, researchers generally
focused separately on such factors as biology, achievement, or power
to explain what energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior.
Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings:
deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each
lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level. Once
each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a
deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the
deficiency.
The first four levels are:
1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;
2) Safety/security: out of danger;
3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and
4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.
According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth
needs if and only if the deficiency needs are met. Maslow's initial
conceptualization included only one growth need--self-actualization.
Self-actualized people are characterized by: 1) being problem-focused;
2) incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life; 3) a
concern about personal growth; and 4) the ability to have peak
experiences. Maslow later differentiated the growth need of
self-actualization, specifically naming two lower-level growth needs
prior to general level of self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998)
and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971).
They are:
5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;
6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's
potential; and
8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to
help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.
Maslow published his first conceptualization of his theory over 50
years ago (Maslow, 1943) and it has since become one of the most
popular and often cited theories of human motivation. An interesting
phenomenon related to Maslow's work is that in spite of a lack of
evidence to support his hierarchy, it enjoys wide acceptance (Wahba &
Bridgewell, 1976; Soper, Milford & Rosenthal, 1995).
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY – EXISTENCE, RELATEDNESS, GROWTH
======================================================
http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm
Alderfer's ERG theory
Alderfer classifies needs into three categories, also ordered
hierarchically:
growth needs (development of competence and realization of potential)
relatedness needs (satisfactory relations with others)
existence needs (physical well-being)
Alderfer (1972) developed a comparable hierarchy with his ERG
(existence, relatedness, and growth) theory. His approach modified
Maslow's theory based on the work of Gordon Allport (1960, 1961) who
incorporated concepts from systems theory into his work on
personality.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.utpb.edu/freshseminar/Theories.doc
Alderfer's ERG Theory
E - needs for physiological and material well-being
R - needs for satisfying interpersonal relationships
G - needs for continued personal growth & development
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/1650/htmlalderfer.html
ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY
Clayton Alderfer reworked Maslow's Need Hierarchy to align it more
closely with empirical research. Alderfer's theory is called the ERG
theory -- Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.
Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence
requirements; what Maslow called physiological and safety needs.
Relatedness refers to the desire we have for maintaining interpersonal
relationships; similar to Maslow's social/love need, and the external
component of his esteem need.
Growth refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development; the
intrinsic component of Maslow's esteem need, and self-actualization
***** This brief article compares Maslow to Alderfer
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/erg/
ERG Theory
To address some of the limitations of Maslow's hierarchy as a theory
of motivation, Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory, which like
Maslow's theory, describes needs as a hierarchy. The letters ERG stand
for three levels of needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. The ERG
theory is based on the work of Maslow, so it has much in common with
it but also differs in some important aspects.
MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
============================
http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_06_mcclelland.html
Achievement Motivation
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.businessballs.com/davidmcclelland.htm
david c mcclelland's motivational needs theory
David McClelland is most noted for describing three types of
motivational need, which he identified in his 1988 book, Human
Motivation:
achievement motivation (n-ach)
authority/power motivation (n-pow)
affiliation motivation (n-affil)
the need for achievement (n-ach)
The n-ach person is 'achievement motivated' and therefore seeks
achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and
advancement in the job. There is a strong need for feedback as to
achievement and progress, and a need for a sense of accomplishment.
the need for authority and power (n-pow)
The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'. This driver produces a need
to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong
need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also motivation
and need towards increasing personal status and prestige.
the need for affiliation (n-affil)
The n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated', and has a need for
friendly relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other
people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be
liked and held in popular regard. These people are team players.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcclelland/
McLelland’s Theory of Needs
In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an
individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by
one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as either
achievement, affiliation, or power. A person's motivation and
effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three
needs. McClelland's theory sometimes is referred to as the three need
theory or as the learned needs theory.
Implications for Management
People with different needs are motivated differently.
High need for achievement - High achievers should be given challenging
projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent
feedback. While money is not an important motivator, it is an
effective form of feedback.
High need for affiliation - Employees with a high affiliation need
perform best in a cooperative environment.
High need for power - Management should provide power seekers the
opportunity to manage others.
-------------------------------------------------
http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/motive4.htm
Three Needs Theory (McClellan)
1) Need for Achievement
-- Need for Achievement
-- Personal responsibility
-- Feedback
-- Moderate risk
2) Need For Power
-- Influence
-- Competitive
3) Need for Affiliation
-- Acceptance and Friendship
-- Cooperative
(David McClelland, The Achieving Sociey, 1961)
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm
Acquired Needs Theory (mcclellan)
Some needs are acquired as a result of life experiences
-- need for achievement, accomplish something difficult. as kids
encouraged to do things for themselves.
-- need for affiliation, form close personal relationships. as kids
rewarded for making friends.
-- need for power, control others. as kids, able to get what they
want through controlling others.
Again similar to maslow and alderfer.
These needs can be measured using the TAT (thematic apperception
test), which is a projection-style test based on interpreting stories
that people tell about a set of pictures.
McClelland's TAT – Thematic Apperception Test
Need for - desire to do something better, master a complex task
Need for - establish and maintain relationships
Need for - to control, influence, or be responsible for others.
Translating to High Need Achievement People, High Need Affiliation,
and High Need power.
HERZBERG’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
=============================
http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_05_herzberg.html
2 Factor Hygiene and Motivation Theory
http://www.aafp.org/fpm/991000fm/26.html
Job Satisfaction: Putting Theory Into Practice
Yes, it is possible for you and your employees to be happy on the job.
The key is in how you handle two factors: motivation and 'hygiene.'
Herzberg went on to develop his theory that there are two dimensions
to job satisfaction: motivation and "hygiene" (see "Two dimensions of
employee satisfaction"). Hygiene issues, according to Herzberg, cannot
motivate employees but can minimize dissatisfaction, if handled
properly. In other words, they can only dissatisfy if they are absent
or mishandled. Hygiene topics include company policies, supervision,
salary, interpersonal relations and working conditions. They are
issues related to the employee's environment. Motivators, on the other
hand, create satisfaction by fulfilling individuals' needs for meaning
and personal growth. They are issues such as achievement, recognition,
the work itself, responsibility and advancement. Once the hygiene
areas are addressed, said Herzberg, the motivators will promote job
satisfaction and encourage production.
Frederick Herzberg theorized that employee satisfaction depends on two
sets of issues: "hygiene" issues and motivators. Once the hygiene
issues have been addressed, he said, the motivators create
satisfaction among employees.
Hygiene issues (dissatisfiers)
Company and administrative policies
Supervision
Salary
Interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Motivators (satisfiers)
Work itself
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Advancement
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.skymark.com/resources/leaders/herzberg.asp
Frederick Herzberg: Exploring What Motivates Us
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00005REGZ/002-5580991-6300068?v=glance
One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? (Classic) (HBR OnPoint
Enhanced Edition) [DOWNLOAD: PDF]
by Frederick Herzberg (Author)
http://www.stc.org/50thConf/Session_Materials/dataShow.asp?ID=191
One More Time – How Do You Motivate Employees?
***** This is a 26-page PPT presentation. discussing Herzberg’s
motivational theory that was originally published in the Harvard
Business Review in 1968, republished in 1987 and 2003 and is rated the
most popular HBR reprint ever.
================================
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
================================
http://www.siu.edu/departments/cola/psycho/psyc323/chapt08/
Chapter Eight Motivation Through Equity, Expectancy, and Goal Setting
http://www.siu.edu/departments/cola/psycho/psyc323/chapt08/tsld002.htm
Cognitive Theories of Motivation-
Behavior is a function of beliefs, expectations, values, and other
mental cognitions.
-- Equity Theory
-- Expectancy Theory
-- Goal Setting Theory
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
This theory suggests that there are actually two motivation systems:
intrinsic and extrinsic that correspond to two kinds of motivators:
-- intrinsic motivators: Achievement, responsibility and competence.
motivators that come from the actual performance of the task or job --
the intrinsic interest of the work.
-- extrinsic: pay, promotion, feedback, working conditions -- things
that come from a person's environment, controlled by others.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/~dtroke/cognitive_theories.htm
Cognitive Theories – Attribution Theory, Self-Efficacy, Goal Theory
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.css.edu/users/dswenson/web/OB/VIEtheory.html
Expectancy & Equity Theories of Motivation
Vroom's VIE (Expectancy) Theory of Motivation
Although Edward Tolman and Kurt Lewin conducted much of the original
work on expectancy theory, Victor Vroom is usually credited with
having applied the model to workplace motivation. This theory explains
how people choose from among various options available, and posits
that motivation is dependent on how much we want something and our
likehood of getting it.
Equity Theory
J. S. Adams formulated equity theory of job motivation in 1963. It is
based on the idea that people will develop comparisons with others
("referents") to help decide what is fair and reasonable in an
exchange. We are also influenced by friends, colleagues, family, and
other sources of facts and opinions in establishing these benchmarks.
Our motivation is then exerted proportional to the degree to which we
are receiving reward outputs equivalent to our effortful inputs. When
outputs or rewards (salary, bonus, special treatment, etc.) are not
equivalent, people become bitter and even disruptive, productivity and
quality may be reduced, absenteeism may increase, and personnel may
turnover.
ADAMS’S EQUITY THEORY
=====================
http://academic.emporia.edu/smithwil/00fallmg443/eja/zilllman.html#Adams'%20Equity%20Theory
Adams' Equity Theory
"Equity theory is based on the phenomenon of social comparison. Adams
argues that when people gauge the fairness of their work outcomes
relative to others, any perceived inequity is a motivating state of
mind. Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that the rewards
received for their work contributions compare unfavorably to the
rewards other people appear to have received for their work. When such
perceived inequity exists, the theory states that people will be
motivated to act in ways that remove the discomfort and restore a
sense of felt equity" (Hunt 115).
-- Underpayment (perceived negative inequity) - perceived as a short
coming of a reward or payment in relation to work inputs
-- Overpayment (perceive positive inequity) - can produce feeling of
guilt from getting more reward or payment for working
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm
j stacey adams - equity theory on job motivation
adams' equity theory
We each seek a fair balance between what we put into our job and what
we get out of it. Adams calls these inputs and outputs. We form
perceptions of what constitutes a fair balance or trade of inputs and
outputs by comparing our own situation with other 'referents'
(reference points or examples) in the market place. We are also
influenced by colleagues, friends, partners in establishing these
benchmarks and our own responses to them in relation to our own ratio
of inputs to outputs.
http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.pdf
Adams Equity Theory Diagram
-------------------------------------------------
http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/motive5.htm
Equity Theory
-- An employee compares her/his job's inputs-outcomes ratio with that
of referents.
If the employee perceives inequity, she/he will act to correct the
inequity:
-- Lower productivity
-- Reduced quality
-- Increased absenteeism
-- Voluntary resignation.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.psyc.vt.edu/courses/f2003/94336/Motivation.htm
B. Cognitive Choice Theories
1. Equity theory (Adams, 1965)
This theory is based on the principle of social comparison
-- Equity considerations
-- Input/output ratio for self and others
2 types of inequity
1. underpayment
2. overpayment
Inequity = Tension
Evaluation of Equity Theory
-- Equity theory holds up best under conditions of underpayment
-- Power of prediction is very weak
-- May be more useful in determining job satisfaction
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.westminsterassociates.com/fairpay.htm
WHAT IS "FAIR" PAY?
A landowner went out early in the morning to hire men to work in his
vineyard. He agreed to pay them a denarius for the day. Three hours
later he went out and saw others standing in the marketplace doing
nothing. He told them to go and work in his vineyard and he would "pay
them whatever is right," so they went. He did the same again in the
sixth, ninth and eleventh hours. When evening came, the landowner paid
the workers, starting with the last hired. Each worker received a
denarius. But those hired first expected more. The landowner told them
"I am not being unfair to you. Didn't you agree to work for a
denarius? I want to give the man who was hired last the same as I gave
you. Don't I have the right to do what I want with my own money? Or
are you envious because I am generous? So the last will be first, and
the first will be last." Matthew 20:1-16.
Today, the pay strategy in this Parable would certainly not be
considered "fair." However, this Parable illustrates the essence of
Equity Theory (J. S. Adams), which helps us to understand how people
perceive pay fairness. Adams suggests that each of us compares our
"inputs" (e.g. work) and our "outcomes" (e.g. pay). If we deem this
comparison "unfair," Adams states that we may alter our inputs in
relation to how we perceive our outcomes.
EXPECTANCY THEORY -- VROOM
===========================
http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/motive6.htm
Expectancy Theory
An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that
the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness
of that outcome to the individual.
-- Effort and Performance linkage (How hard will I have to work?)
-- Performance and Reward linkage (What is the reward?)
-- Attractiveness (How attractive is the reward?)
(Victor Vroom, Work and Motivation, 1964)
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.psyc.vt.edu/courses/f2003/94336/Motivation.htm
2. Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964)
A cognitive theory that assumes that all people are completely
rational decision makers
-- People expend effort on activities that will lead to desired
outcomes or rewards
5 major components
-- Job outcomes
-- Valence
-- Instrumentality
--Expectancy
--Force
Evaluation of Expectancy Theory
-- Assumes that individuals are completely rational in their decision
making
-- VIE multiplicative model is not the optimal predictor of effort,
choice, and performance
-- VIE framework is a good conceptual basis for understanding the
construct of motivation
GOAL SETTING THEORY
===================
http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/motive5.htm#goal
Goal Setting Theory
Specific goals increase performance, and difficult goals, when
accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.psyc.vt.edu/courses/f2003/94336/Motivation.htm
C. Self-Regulation Theories
1. Goal-setting theory
A person’s actions and motivation are governed by goals that the
person is trying to attain
Goals serve as a motivational basis for task performance in that:
1. They motivate people to exert effort in line with the demands
of their goal
2. They lead individuals to persist in their activities until
they reach their goal
3. They direct attention to relevant behaviors or outcomes
The Goal Setting Effect
Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance levels than
vague, easy, or do-your-best goals
Research Support
Strong empirical support for this theory
-- Simple vs. complex tasks
-- Assigned vs. self-set goals
-- Ability driven tasks
Determinants of goal choice
1. Ability
2. Self-efficacy
Evaluation of goal setting theory
-- Provides an excellent framework for understanding how
aspirations and goals influence performance and motivation
-- “Bottom line” value
Management by Objectives
-- Limited in its scope
-------------------------------------------------
www.psych.ohiou.edu/people/faculty/ vancouver/Academy2000.ppt
How Control Theory Accounts for Goal-Setting Effects: An Empirical
Investigation
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.triangle.co.uk/jvet/Resources/Loidl-Keil.pdf
Towards a Conceptual Scheme of Motivation in Work-Based Training ...
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed462671.html
Self-Regulation through Goal Setting. ERIC/CASS Digest.
Most theories of self-regulation emphasize its inherent link with
goals. A goal reflects one's purpose and refers to quantity, quality,
or rate of performance (Locke & Latham, 1990). Goal setting involves
establishing a standard or objective to serve as the aim of one's
actions. Goals are involved across the different phases of
self-regulation: forethought (setting a goal and deciding on goal
strategies); performance control (employing goal-directed actions and
monitoring performance); and self-reflection (evaluating one's goal
progress and adjusting strategies to ensure success (Zimmerman, 1998).
========================================
GENERAL RESOURCES ON EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
========================================
http://www.inc.com/guides/hr/20776.html
Motivating Employees
***** This is a collection of links from Inc. magazine that covers
every facet of employee motivation.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.entrepreneur.com/Your_Business/YB_Node/0,4507,508,00.html
Motivating Employees
***** This is a collection of links from Entrepreneur. magazine that
covers every facet of employee motivation.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.dickinson.edu/~jin/motivation.html
Motivation in Organization
Types of theories
(1) Need-based theories
-- Maslow's need hierarchy
-- McGregor's Theory X and Theory
-- Herzberg's two-factor theory
-- Alderfer's ERG theory
-- McClelland's need theory
(2). Process-based theory
-- Equity theory
-- Expectancy theory
-- Goal-setting theory
-- Reinforcement theory:
-- Attribution theory
(3) Individual-organizational goal-congruence theories
-- Exchange
-- Accommodation
-- Socialization
-- Identification
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/MGT302/SS/Outlines/M2Outline.html
Topical Outline for: Module 2- Motivation & Behavioral Change
II. Approaches to the study of work motivation
A. Dispositional Approach
B. Cognitive Approach
C. Behavioral Approach
D. Affective Approach
E. Integrative Approaches
III. Dispositional Approaches- What outcomes for individuals motivated
to obtain?
A. Need Theories
1) The Need Hierarchy
2) ERG Theory
3) Learned Needs
B. Sources of Motivation Model
1)Self-concept based motivation
C. The role of values in employee motivation
IV. Cognitive Approaches- How do individuals choose among alternative
behaviors?
A. Expectancy Theory
B. Decisional Balance
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/Notes/Motivation.html
Motivation
Richard W. Scholl, Professor of Management, University of Rhode Island
Much of the debate around the topic of motivation has centered on
these issues:
1. Is motivation Internal to the individual or the result of
External (situational) forces?
2. The relative effectiveness of Extrinsic Motivation versus
Intrinsic Motivation.
3. The Cognitive nature of motivation versus the Affective nature
of motivation.
4. Cognitive versus Dispositional approaches to motivation
5. Process models versus Content models of motivation
The following summary and index provides links to various other web
pages summarizing motivation issues. These notes are intended for the
use of our graduate and undergraduate students and are generally used
in conjunction with class discussion and extensive reading. Other
feel free to use this and related pages as a resource, but are advised
to do so with some degree of caution.
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/d/a/dan148/I_O_motivatn.html
Motivation
Lecture Goals
Introduce Motivation
Introduce Theories of Motivation
-------------------------------------------------
http://academic.emporia.edu/smithwil/00fallmg443/eja/zilllman.html
Motivation
What is Motivation?
Role of Managers in Motivating Employees
Employee Motivation
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Alderfer's ERG Theory
Adams' Equity Theory
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory
Ways Managers Can Increase Motivation
References
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.businessballs.com/freeonlineresources.htm
free theory and process diagrams
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.psyc.vt.edu/courses/f2003/94336/Motivation.htm
Work Motivation
-- The force that drives people to behave in a way that energizes,
directs, and sustains work behavior
Individual variability in behavior not due solely to
a) individual differences in ability
b) environmental demands
3 major dependent variables
1. Direction of behavior
2. Intensity of action
3. Persistence of behavior
General Model of Performance
Ability + Situational Constraints + Motivation à Behavior à
Performance
-------------------------------------------------
http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:F6cmgUAksdYJ:www.eng.fiu.edu/feeds/Fall_03_HO/EIN%25205322/1/chap%252007.ppt+Equity+Theory+Adams&hl=en&ie=UTF-8
Motivation Theories:
Content Theories:
Based on human needs and people’s effort to satisfy them
-- Maslow's hierarchy of needs
-- Herzberg's 2-factor theory
-- McClelland’s Trio of Needs
Process Theories:
Assumes that behavioral choices are based on expected outcomes
-- Equity Theory (Adams)
-- Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
-- Porter-Lawler Extension
-- Behavior Modification (Skinner)
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.giulian.com/chap15accc.htm
Professor Giulian’s Bulletin Board
Motivating Employees
What is motivation? The willingness of employees to exert high levels
of effort to reach goals (keeping in mind that the effort must also
help to satisfy an internal need)
What is a need? Internal state that makes something look attractive.
Needs (Content)Theories-
Emphasis on the needs of people
1. Maslow
2. Hertzberg
3. Three Needs Theory- McClelland
Process (Cognitive) Theories
Emphasis on the process of motivating employees.
1. Goal setting theory
2. Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
3. Equity Theory- Stacey Adams
4. Expectancy Theory- Victor Vroom
Designing Motivating Jobs
Job Design- The way in which managers design jobs to make them more
satisfying.
1. Job Enlargement- Horizontal expansion of a job (tasks)
2. Job Enrichment- Vertical expansion (Responsibility)
-------------------------------------------------
http://www.org.hha.dk/org/ha/efteraar01/BSc/Lecture2.pdf
Motivational Theories – General Classification
Content Theories – a number of more or less identical theories that
attempt to explain which forces motivate human behavior i.e. theories
that primarily try to identify the internal forces, needs or urges
that are believed to control human behaviour.
Process Theories – a number of different theories that attempt to
explain how and why human behavior is directed towards certain
choices/behavioural forms, and which parameters other persons (i.e.
managers) will try to influence in order to promote a specific
behavioural form.
This is a case of complementary – rather than competing explanations.
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organizational behavior motivation theories
organizational behavior needs based motivation theories
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Alderfer's ERG Theory.
Cognitive Theories of Motivation organizational behavior |
