Thanks for asking!
Let's take the questions one at a time. I'm going to rearrange the
order just a bit so I can present the full answer in a logical flow of
information.
*** Can the sulfur content of gasoline be reduced through the refining
process of crude oil?
Yes. The Department of Energy's Oak Ridge National Laboratory explains
the basic sulfur removal process:
"Petroleum refineries extract hydrogen from natural gas to produce
plastics (i.e. polyethylene) and add the hydrogen to crude oil to make
gasoline. To remove sulfur during gasoline production, hydrogen is
added under pressure along with a catalyst to produce hydrogen
sulfide, which is removed as a gas. To produce the maximum amount of
gasoline from crude oil, the process of adding hydrogen must be run in
a narrow temperature and pressure range. The catalyst used effectively
removes most sulfur-containing compounds.
In addition to calculating and disseminating the optimal temperature
and pressure ranges for the process, ORNL is also experimenting with a
new biochemical approach to sulfur removal:
Biodesulfurization
"...A chemical process that adds oxygen to sulfur compounds in the
fuel to allow their selective removal using a solvent. As a result of
this oxidation-extraction process, a desulfurized fuel and a
high-sulfur extract are produced. The extract is about 10% of the
original fuel and has recoverable hydrocarbons, the fuel's energy
source. During the research project, this extract was sent to the ORNL
group, whose job was to use bacteria to remove the sulfur from the
extract and recover its fuel value.
For the research project, the ORNL group used genetically engineered
Pseudomonas bacteria obtained from a Spanish molecular biology
organization (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas of
Madrid). Each microbe carries an inserted gene from another bacterium
that breaks the carbon-sulfur bond by adding two oxygen atoms,
converting each sulfur species to a sulfate (SO4-2).
Department of Energy
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
ORNL REView
http://www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/v33_3_00/emissions.htm
*** How much would it cost the refiners per gallon of gasoline?
"To get rid of the most difficult sulfur compounds, the refinery must
operate at a lower temperature or higher hydrogen pressure, which will
raise its fuel production costs,"
"At a lower temperature, the reaction will go slower, so more refining
capacity must be added and more crude oil must be used to produce the
normal yield of gasoline. At a higher pressure, the wall thickness of
the refinery units must be doubled or tripled, which is a difficult
and expensive engineering problem."
"Biodesulfurization is a potentially economical process because it can
be performed at room temperature. Conventional refinery techniques for
sulfur removal, which add hydrogen to crude oil, gasoline, and diesel
to produce hydrogen sulfide gas, require temperatures as high as
300°C. "Biodesulfurization may ultimately cost less because it will
use much less energy."
"...In a study for the Department of Energy (DOE), Jerry Hadder of
ORNL's Energy Division used a refinery model to determine the impacts
of low-sulfur gasoline production on petroleum refining operations and
investments. "We estimated that the total refining industry investment
to enable production of low-sulfur gasoline will be $5 to $10
billion," Hadder says. "Partly as a result of our study, DOE expressed
concerns about the high degree of technical uncertainty surrounding
refinery product quality and the potential consequences of rising
costs for the refining industry and gasoline consumers."
Department of Energy
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
ORNL REView
http://www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/v33_3_00/emissions.htm
Using the national average gasoline cost vs. cost per gallon in
California (which requires reduced emission gasoline statewide) the
estimated difference in price is currently 27 cents per gallon.
California $1.662
National $1.389
AAA Daily Fuel Gauge Report
http://www.fuelgaugereport.com/index.asp
*** Did Georgia already pass legislation that required gasoline
stations to only sell gasoline with a certain level of sulphur?
Through the Amendments to the federal Clean Air Act, "EPA mandates
that by 2005 the nation's largest oil refiners must reduce the sulfur
content of gasoline by 90%, from an average of 300 parts per million
(ppm) to 30 ppm. EPA also calls for an equally large reduction in
diesel fuel's sulfur levels (to 15 ppm) by mid-2006."
Department of Energy
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
ORNL REView
http://www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/v33_3_00/emissions.htm
See also:
Environmental Protection Agency
Clean Air Act and Amendments
http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaq_caa.html
According to the Georgia Environmental Protection Division:
"In the performance of its duties, the [Georgia] Board of Natural
Resources shall have and may exercise the power to:
Establish a program to reduce the adverse effects of acid deposition
through the reduction of annual emissions of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides within the state sufficient to comply with the
requirements of 42 U.S.C. Section 7651, et seq., of the federal act."
Georgia Environmental Protection Division
The Georgia Air Quality Act.
12-9-5 G *** CODE SECTION *** 12/03/01
http://www.ganet.org/cgi-bin/pub/ocode/ocgsearch?docname=OCode/G/12/9/5
"Georgia gasoline requirements include 7.0 RVP gasoline in Atlanta and
the surrounding metropolitan area while conventional gasoline is
permitted in the rest of the state."
Energy Information Agency - Department of Energy
Petroleum State Profiles
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/info/state/ga.asp
"Georgia is classified as a Southern Tier state under the federal RVP
program. RVP limited to 7.8 psi from June 1 - Sept. 15 in all ozone
nonattainment areas and 9.0 psi in all ozone attainment areas
(excluding Atlanta area). Ozone Nonattainment Counties: Cherokee,
Clayton, Cobb, Coweta, Dekalb, Douglas, Fayette, Forsyth, Fulton,
Gwinnett, Henry, Paulding, Rockdale: 7.8 psi (June 1 - Sept. 15).
Remainder of State: 9.0 psi (June 1 - Sept. 15). Gasoline blended with
no less than 9.0% and no more than 10% ethanol are allowed a 1.0 psi
waiver."
Hart Energy Network
Motor Fuels Information Network
50 States at a Glance
http://www.hartenergynetwork.com/motorfuels/state/doc/glance/glncrfg.htm
Fact Sheet - Lower Reid Vapor Pressure Gasoline (Adobe PDF Format)
http://www.in.gov/idem/air/standard/control/m05.pdf
*** How many parts per million of sulfur dioxide does an automobile
emit in the state of Georgia?
Specifically, in relation to air quality and sulfur dioxide emissions:
"EPA has set the Primary NAAQS for Sulfur Dioxide at 0.30 ppm based on
an annual arithmetic mean, or of not more than one 24-hour period
annually with an average concentration in excess of 0.14 ppm. The
Secondary NAAQS is not more than one three-hour period annually with
an average concentration in excess of 0.50 ppm. An area may be
designated in nonattainment for both Primary and Secondary standards.
Georgia currently has no areas classified as nonattainment for Sulfur
Dioxide.
Emission standards for individual vehicles are calculated based on the
following formula:
"Sulfur Dioxide
1. New fuel-burning sources capable of firing fossil fuel(s) at a
rate exceeding 250 million BTU's per hour heat input, constructed or
extensively modified after January 1, 1972, may not emit sulfur
dioxide equal to or exceeding:
(i) 0.8 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million BTU's of heat input
derived from liquid fossil fuel or derived from liquid fossil fuel and
wood residue,
(ii) 1.2 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million BTU's of heat input
derived from solid fossil fuel or derived from solid fossil fuel and
wood residue,
(iii) When different fossil fuels are burned simultaneously in any
combination, the applicable standard expressed as pounds of sulfur
dioxide per million BTU's of heat input shall be determined by
proration using the following formula:
a = y (0.80) = z (1.2)
y + z
where:
y = percent of total heat input derived from liquid
fossil fuel,
z = percent of total heat input derived from solid
fossil fuel,
a = the allowable emission in pounds per million BTU's
2. In addition to the stipulations and limitations in paragraphs 1.
and 2. of this subsection, all fuel burning sources below 100 million
BTU's of heat input per hour shall not burn fuel containing more than
2.5 percent sulfur, by weight. All fuel burning sources having a heat
input of 100 million BTU's per hour or greater shall not burn a fuel
containing more than 3 percent sulfur, by weight.
3. Notwithstanding the limitations on sulfur content of fuels
stated in paragraph 3, above, the Director [of the EPA] may allow
sulfur content greater than that allowed in paragraph 3. above,
provided that the source utilizes sulfur dioxide removal and the
sulfur dioxide emission does not exceed that allowed by paragraph 3.
above, utilizing no sulfur dioxide removal.
________________________________________________________________________
THIS IS THE FEDERALLY APPROVED REGULATION AS OF JANUARY 26, 1993
Date Submitted Date Approved Federal
to EPA by EPA Register
Original Reg: JAN 27, 1972 MAY 31, 1972 37 FR 10842
1st Revision: DEC 16, 1975 AUG 20, 1976 41 FR 35184
2nd Revision: JAN 17, 1979 SEP 18, 1979 44 FR 54047
3rd Revision: DEC 15, 1986 JAN 26, 1993 58 FR 6093
JAN 03, 1991 JAN 26, 1993 58
FR 6093
*** How many parts per million could this be reduced through the
refining process?
It is required that the gasoline refining process reduce emissions
statewide to 15 parts per million (from the current 30 parts per
million) by 2006. The measures described above for reducing emissions
are aimed at meeting this upcoming standard.
Department of Energy
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
ORNL REView
http://www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/v33_3_00/emissions.htm
Google Search Terms
gasoline refining reduce sulfur dioxide emissions georgia legislation
gasoline sulfur dioxide emissions
I hope this information meets your expectations. Should you have any
questions, please feel free to ask.
= larre = |
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