Hello Briang,
Quite complicated and interesting questions you pose here, Briang.
I have gathered plenty of information regarding genetic causes of
eating disorders. However, researchers are still not sure of genetic?s
exact role in eating disorders. It appears that both nature and
nurture come into play. Because of this, there are no hard and fast
numbers or predictors of your progeny being afflicted with eating
disorders, alcoholism, depression, or drug abuse. After reading this
answer, you may be able to arrive at relative chances for your future
children, but it is impossible to foretell. Since you don?t mention
any risk factors in your family, your children may not even inherit
the problematic genes at all! Studies have shown evidence of the role
of genetics, but also realize that other factors such as stress and
family relationships can cause the likelihood of such behaviors to
manifest themselves.
?In a recent study in the American Journal of Psychiatry, subjects
were 11.4 times more likely to develop an eating disorder if their
family had a history of anorexia, and 3.4 times more likely when there
was a history of bulimia. "Their families excessively emphasized
weight," says Christopher Koch, Ph.D., a George Fox University
psychology professor.
Koch's own study, published in the Journal of Psychology, indicates a
strong connection between women with binge eating disorder
(BED)--characterized by episodes of bingeing without purging--and
feelings of marked rejection from their fathers, but no link was found
between BED sufferers and their mothers. Until now, "parenting
research focused on mothers and left fathers out," he says. "In this
case, the fathers have a role."?
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1175/is_4_33/ai_63125125
1% of female adolescents have anorexia
4%, or four out of one hundred, college-aged women have bulimia
Only about 10% of people with anorexia and bulimia are male
About 72% of alcoholic women younger than 30 also have eating disorders.
· Determining accurate statistics is difficult.
?Because physicians are not required to report eating disorders to a
health agency, and because people with these problems tend to be
secretive, denying that they even have a disorder, we have no way of
knowing exactly how many people in this country are affected.
We can study small groups of people, determine how many of them are
eating disordered, and then extrapolate to the general population. The
numbers are usually given as percentages, and they are as close as we
can get to an accurate estimate of the total number of people affected
by eating disorders.
Now, that having been said, the journal Clinician Reviews [13(9])
2003] estimates that each year about five million Americans are
affected by an eating disorder. But there is disagreement.
The National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders
states that approximately eight million people in the U.S. have
anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and related eating disorders. Eight million
people represents about three percent (3%) of the total population.
Put another way, according to ANAD, about three out of every one
hundred people in this country eats in a way disordered enough to
warrant treatment.?
http://www.anred.com/stats.html
?There is obviously a strong correlation between family dysfunction
and anorexia-yet attempts to find whether or not a child will be
genetically predisposed to an eating disorder are still undetermined.
According to a study documented by Killian, "it is roughly eight times
as common in females first degree relatives of anorexics as in the
general public." Scientists have studied the biochemical functions of
people with the disorders and have recently focused on the
neuroendocrine system-a combination of the central nervous and
hormonal systems.
According to the same article, many of the regulatory mechanisms
controlled by this system--including such functions as physical growth
and development to appetite and digestion-are seriously disturbed in
people with anorexia nervosa. The finding that family environment is
significantly associated with the risk of developing anorexia nervosa
is therefore consistent with previous research as per Felker. Felker
has also documented that Family Environment Scores (FES) identify a
perception of greater contact, greater control, and greater
achievement orientation as being associated with an increased risk of
developing anorexia nervosa. This could possibly stem from a family
vulnerability-yet how heredity and the environment interact to produce
anorexia remains unclear.?
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/dysfunct.htm#Is%20there%20a%20correlation?
?Binge eating episodes may act as a psychological release for
excessive emotional stress. Other circumstances that may predispose an
individual to BED include heredity and affective disorders, such as
major depression. BED patients are also more likely to have a
comorbid, or co-existing, diagnosis of impulsive behaviors (for
example, compulsive buying), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
panic disorder, or personality disorders.
Individuals who develop BED often come from families who put an
unnatural emphasis on the importance of food, for example, as a source
of comfort in times of emotional distress. As children, BED patients
may have been taught to clean their plate regardless of their
appetite, or that finishing a meal made them a "good" girl or boy.
Cultural attitudes towards beauty and thinness may also be a factor in
the BED equation?
http://www.chclibrary.org/micromed/00039850.html
?There is further evidence to suggest that eating disorders run in the
family and are something with which sufferers are born. Dr Walter
Kaye, a doctor from Pittsburgh in the US, set up an international
study centre to see if eating disorders ran in the family.
He found that 10% of his patients with either anorexia or bulimia had
a relative who also had an eating disorder.
And Dr Hans Hook used to believe that anorexia only existed in Western
countries where there was a pressure to be thin.
That was until he conducted a study on the Caribbean island of
Curacao, where fat is considered attractive.
He studied the medical notes of 144,000 cases looking for signs of
eating disorders. He examined 291 of them in detail and was able to
confirm eight cases of anorexia nervosa.
Given the island's small population, this incidence was equal to that in Europe.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/259226.stm
?Research has shown, however, that there is a significant biological
component which leads to a manifestation of these disorders (2).
Current ideas on the biological origins of anorexia and bulimia will
be explored in this paper. These include areas ranging from genetic
factors to neurotransmitter and hormone imbalances. Genetics appears
to play a significant role in predisposing a person to developing an
eating disorder.?
?Studies have shown genetic predisposition for developing an eating
disorder. Females in a family which has a member with an eating
disorders are more likely then average women to develop an eating
disorder themselves (1). According to one study, cited on numerous web
pages, "about half the risk of developing this (anorexia) eating
disorder is inherited."(4) It was found that identical twin sisters
were more prone to both developing an eating disorder then
non-identical twins. DNA samples of affected siblings are now being
analyzed to determine if they share genetic characteristics different
from those of non-eating disorder siblings.?
?One difficulty with the argument of a genetic predisposition for
bulimia and anorexia is that these disorders are most common among
upper and middle class women. The genetic predisposition toward an
eating disorder may be present in other socioeconomic classes, but
other factors which are needed for the disease to be fully manifested
are not present. Environmental conditions were also noted in studies
discussing genetic links. It appears that mothers and fathers who
worry or comment about their daughters beauty and weight were
providing a risky environment which could lead to an eating disorder.
Possibly this happens more often in households of the higher economic
classes. Other behavioral studies have shown that parental disorders
(depression, spouse abuse, etc.) are often passed on to their children
in part through this environmental, yet genetically intertwined
fashion?
?Anorexic patients, on the other hand, may have overactive
serotonerigic response centers, leading to a need to reduce the levels
of serotonin in their brains by restricting their food intake.
Actually, excessive levels of serotonin are correlated with a nervous,
jittery feeling. Self-starvation may be an attempt to rid the body of
this uncomfortable feeling.?
?A few sources suggested that anorexics are addicted to fasting,
apparently because of the chemical changes brought on by starvation.
The opioids, enkephalins and endorphins are found to be at elevated
levels in the spinal fluid of patients with anorexia. It is unclear
however, whether or not the starving was caused by, or was the cause
of, these elevated opioid levels.?
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro98/202s98-paper3/Hirst3.html
?However, researchers have long suspected that genetics also play a
role, and now some think they're on the trail of specific genes for
anorexia nervosa.
Although the genes don't cause anorexia in everyone who has them, they
appear to make people susceptible to the disorder, says Dr. Wade
Berrettini, the co-author of a new study into anorexia genes and the
director of the Center for Neurobiology and Behavior at the University
of Pennsylvania Medical Center.
"We hope we will take this genetic information and try to make an
effective medicine," Berrettini says.
Anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders affect 8 million
Americans, according to the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa
and Associated Disorders. Women are the most common sufferers, but a
growing number of men are anorexic, too.?
?In the latest work, researchers at the University of Pittsburgh
studied 200 families in which at least two relatives in each family
suffered from restricting anorexia nervosa, a specific type of the
disease. Sufferers strictly control their diets, but don't engage in
bingeing or purging. A total of 650 people provided DNA samples.
This is the first time scientists have launched an extensive search
for genetic links in relatives who suffer from anorexia, the
researchers say. Their findings appear in the March issue of the
American Journal of Human Genetics.
The researchers think they've found genes that may be related to
anorexia on chromosome 1; genes on seven other chromosomes may also
play a role. In general, humans come with 23 pairs of chromosomes.
The next step will be to specifically identify the gene or genes that
may cause vulnerability to anorexia, Berrettini says. Humans have an
estimated 35,000 to 50,000 genes.?
http://www.healthscout.com/printerFriendly.asp?ap=1&id=506397
?Is an eating disorder hereditary?
(This information is provided by Cynthia M. Bulik, Ph.D., Professor of
Psychiatry at the Virginia Institute for Psychiatric & Behavioral
Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University.)
Although there does appear to be a genetic component, just because an
individual may be genetically predisposed does not mean that she or he
will necessarily express the genes. Both anorexia and bulimia nervosa
do run in families, and twin studies suggest that genetics do
contribute to the familial tendencies. We now have significant genetic
linkage signals on chromosome 1 for anorexia nervosa and on chromosome
10 for bulimia nervosa.
Environment plays a role both in promoting the expression of the genes
as well as protecting from the expression of the genes. Offspring of
individuals with eating disorders are at increased risk, but it is not
inevitable that they will develop them.
Ten universities and medical centers will collaborate on research of
the genetics of anorexia nervosa and bulimia. They will study four
hundred people over a ten-year period. The National Institute of
Health/National Institute of Mental Health is providing support for
this study about the genetics of anorexia nervosa. Dr. Cynthia M.
Bulik, Ph.D., is one of the researchers.?
http://www.pbs.org/perfectillusions/help/faq.html#7
?The exploration of possible genetic factors contributing to eating
disorders is well founded. It has been observed for decades that
eating disorders sometimes run in families. Even when relatives of a
woman with an eating disorder have not been clinically diagnosed as
suffering from an eating disorder, many clinicians often hear tales
from patients about relatives displaying traits associated with eating
disorders. Clients may recall mothers, aunts, or fathers who were
"obsessed with weight," "ate like a bird," or "hated their
appearance."
?Although these initial studies offer strong support for the notion
that genes contribute to the development of eating disorders, the
specific inheritance patterns are still unclear. Like other behavioral
disorders, anorexia and bulimia nervosa are complex disorders. This
means that these disorders are likely to be caused by multiple genes
and environmental factors with varied effects, unlike monogenic
diseases (caused by one gene) such as Huntington's disease.?
?It is theoretically possible that single-gene mutations might exist
which result in anorexia, bulimia, or other disordered eating (e.g., a
mutation that affects the functioning of the hypothalamus, which plays
a major role in hunger and satiety). However, it is more likely that,
as with obesity, there will be multiple genes interacting with
environmental variables.
For anorexia nervosa, the high-risk genes might be for traits such as
perfectionism, orderliness, low tolerance for new situations, maturity
fears, low self-esteem and overall anxiety. However, even if an
individual was at high genetic risk (i.e., possessed several of these
relevant genes), she might never develop anorexia nervosa if she did
not live in a culture such as ours which emphasizes dieting and
thinness. Researchers are also beginning to understand how dieting,
exercise, semi-starvation, and amennorhea may actually be used to
avoid or inappropriately cope with developmental demands of
adolescence and young adulthood.?
http://www.wpic.pitt.edu/research/pfanbn/genetics.html
·?An estimated 10 per cent of female college students suffer from a
clinical or sub-clinical (borderline) eating disorder, of which over
half suffer from bulimia nervosa.
·An estimated 1 in 100 American women binges and purges to lose weight.
·Approximately 5 per cent of women and 1 percent of men have anorexia
nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge eating disorder.
·15 per cent of young women have significantly disordered eating
attitudes and behavior.
·It is estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 Canadian women aged 13 to 40
have anorexia nervosa and twice as many have bulimia.
·Studies suggest that 5 to 10 percent of people with anorexia or bulimia are males.
·An estimated 1 in 3 of all dieters develop compulsive dieting
attitudes and behaviors.
Of these, one quarter will develop full or partial eating disorders.
·In the UK, nearly 2 in every 100 secondary school girls suffer from
anorexia nervosa,
bulimia nervosa or binge eating disorder.
·Due to the incidence of co-occurring medical conditions, it is almost
impossible to specify the morbidity rates for eating disorders like
anorexia, bulimia or binge eating. However, general estimates suggest
that as many as 10-15 per cent of eating disorders are fatal for those
affected.
·Each day Americans spend an average of $109 million on dieting and
diet related products.
http://www.annecollins.com/eating-disorders/statistics.htm
?In the United States, as many as 10 million females and 1 million
males are fighting a life and death battle with an eating disorder
such as anorexia or bulimia. Approximately 25 million more are
struggling with binge eating disorder (Crowther et al., 1992; Fairburn
et al., 1993; Gordon, 1990; Hoek, 1995; Shisslak et al., 1995).?
http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/p.asp?WebPage_ID=286&Profile_ID=41138
?Age Eating Disorder Statistics
· 10% report onset at 10 years or younger (ANAD)
· 33% report onset between ages of 11-15 (ANAD)
· 43% report onset between ages of 16-20 (ANAD)
· 86% report onset of illness by the age of 20 (ANAD)?
http://womensissues.about.com/cs/eatingdisorders/a/edstats.htm
?While all of the genetic studies and biological predispositions may
be important to understand, it is essential to realize that there are
people who live with too much or too little serotonin who do not
develop an Eating Disorder. It is also important to note that there
are people who develop an Eating Disorder who have no corresponding
predisposition. While there may be genes that play a role in the level
of serotonin within our brains (for some people), the emphasis on
emotional, behavioral and environmental factors cannot and should not
be dismissed. For some, low or high levels of serotonin may make a
person predisposed to relying on food as a way to control how they
feel, but that doesn't elimate all of the non-biological
possibilities.
One way to look at this is to examine a child with Attention Deficit
Disorder (ADD), that has a parent with ADD. The family environment may
be very chaotic, in part due to the way they are hard-wired, but also
because of an inability to cope effectively with the ADD. These
behavioral patterns, as well as a sense of instability in the
environement, are as much a contribution to the way the child learns
to cope, as is the genetic influence of ADD. One doctor we spoke with
said, "I find that a really high percentage of the [eating disorders]
clients I work with have parents with some kind of undiagnosed anxiety
or compulsive behavior type. They may learn how to have these
behaviors themselves simply by living in such an environment. Only
when they grow up and leave the home do they even have the opportunity
to see that what they learned may be dysfunctional." ?
http://www.something-fishy.org/isf/genetics.php
Non-scientific uncontrolled polls related to eating disorders:
==============================================================
Peer relationships as a child
http://www.something-fishy.org/news/poll_october2002.php
Were You Sexually Abused?
http://www.something-fishy.org/news/poll_march2005.php
Home Dynamics
http://www.something-fishy.org/news/poll_january2004.php
Contributing Traits
http://www.something-fishy.org/news/poll_september2003.php
?The cause of eating disorders is complex and badly understood. There
is a genetic predisposition, and
certain specific environmental risk factors have been implicated.?
?There is undoubtedly a genetic predisposition and a range of
environmental risk factors, and there is some information with respect
to the identity and relative importance of these contributions.
However, virtually nothing is known about the individual causal
processes involved, or about how they interact and vary across the
development and maintenance of the disorders.?
?Eating disorders and certain associated traits run in families.49
There seems to be cross-transmission between anorexia nervosa, bulimia
nervosa, and the atypical eating disorders, suggesting a shared
familial liability.50 The prevalence of substance misuse is increased,
especially in the relatives of bulimic probands,51,52 but there seems
to be no cross-transmission. There is also a raised prevalence of
depression,51,53 the pattern of familial transmission being unclear.49
Additionally, there is evidence of familial coaggregation of anorexia
nervosa and obsessional and perfectionist traits.51 In the absence of
adoption studies, twin designs have been used to establish the genetic
contribution to the familiality of eating disorders. Clinic samples
show concordance for anorexia nervosa of around 55% in monozygotic
twins and 5% in dizygotic twins, with the corresponding figures for
bulimia nervosa being 35% and 30%, respectively.54 These findings
suggest a significant heritability of anorexia nervosa but not of
bulimia nervosa.?
?Because clinic-based samples are potentially biassed,population-based
samples have also been studied. Particular interest was generated by
a report that indicated that more than 80% of the variance in
liability to bulimia nervosa was genetic,55 this estimate being much
higher than was expected from previous findings. Indeed, this finding
would make bulimia nervosa one of the most heritable of all complex
phenotypes. However, as table 156?62 shows, there is still uncertainty
as to the size of the genetic contribution to bulimia nervosa, and to
anorexia nervosa, with there being differing point estimates and wide
confidence intervals.
Page 4 of this site has a table depicting ?Eating disorders: estimates
of heritability and environmental contributions in population-based
twin studies?
http://astro.temple.edu/~dsloan/fairburn2003.pdf
?Our society, with its obsession with thinness and obtaining the
perfect body, has cultivated the development of eating disorders.
Research studies found that 52% of adolescents begin dieting before
age 14. Among college females, 78% reported bingeing experiences and
8.2% used self-induced vomiting to control weight.?
http://web.gmu.edu/departments/csdc/eat.html
?Five to ten percent of post-pubescent females are considered to be
eating-disordered. (4) Atypical eating disorders are estimated to
occur in 3-6 percent of middle-school age females and 2-13 percent of
high school-aged females. (4) Ten percent of 13-year old females
report the use of self-induced vomiting in an attempt to lose weight,
and 25-35 percent of college-age women are estimated to engage in
binging and purging as a weight management technique. (4) Thirty-three
percent of female college athletes report practicing binging,
self-induced vomiting, and regular laxative, diuretic and diet pill
use as a means to control weight. (4) Athletes, both male and female,
are considered at high risk for diagnosable eating disorders, with an
estimated incidence of 10-20 percent. (5) The most common eating
disorder in athletes involves exercise bulimia--using exercise as a
form of weight reduction along with the use of laxatives, emetics,
diuretics, and stimulants.?
Genetic Susceptibility
Although the etiology of eating disorders is complex, several national
studies have clearly defined histories of childhood physical or sexual
abuse as predisposing risk factors for developing eating disorders.
(10,11) There is also compelling evidence that genetic predisposition,
premature birth, birth trauma, (12) and biochemical individuality also
play a significant role in the eventual development of an eating
disorder.
Both anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are statistically more
common among family members than in the general population, and there
is a cross-transmission of both conditions, i.e., a family member of
someone with anorexia nervosa is more at risk for developing bulimia
nervosa than someone with no family history. (13) The same study also
shared findings that suggest atypical eating disorders (binge-eating,
etc.) also have familial heritability.
Because it is difficult to definitively separate genetics from
environment in familial studies, eating disorder studies involving
twins have provided important data concerning heritability. Multiple
studies have shown the risk for developing either anorexia or bulimia
is significantly greater in identical twins than in fraternal twins
and these genetic effects emerge only after puberty. (14) In 50-83
percent of bulimia nervosa cases studied, heredity was determined to
be a factor. (15) Comorbidity, the association of two or more
pathologies, also occurs in those with eating disorders and their
family members. In family members with eating disorders there is a
2.0-3.5 times increased occurrence of bipolar or unipolar depression.
(13) In another example of comorbidity, a significant 3- to 4-fold
higher lifetime risk for substance use disorders occurs in bulimics,
relatives of bulimics, or binging anorexics when compared to relatives
of anorexics or controls without eating disorders or a family history
of eating disorders.?
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FDN/is_3_7/ai_88823869#continue
Excerpts from ?Eating Disorders: Obesity, Anorexia Nervosa, and the
Person Within? by Hilda Bruch , regarding genetic predisposition of
eating disorders:
===============================================================================
http://print.google.com/print?id=xM7x05fvUHAC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=genetic&sig=Krpz-Cfj_OEdZHKv4gJv7U2gk6o
http://print.google.com/print?id=xM7x05fvUHAC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=genetic&sig=kXXv0STWK4SLPUvZQ8Fl_szBeCs
http://print.google.com/print?id=xM7x05fvUHAC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=genetic&sig=kXXv0STWK4SLPUvZQ8Fl_szBeCs
http://print.google.com/print?id=xM7x05fvUHAC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=genetic&sig=Uvs4-o-wz_KmC_B2k8PrwScgXsI
http://print.google.com/print?id=xM7x05fvUHAC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=genetic&sig=5RWz-uIp0nnntaocFKnCG2gM9EM
http://print.google.com/print?id=xM7x05fvUHAC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=genetic&sig=-pvAvXJMUDnHnNhrzOtIN2b4ev0
http://print.google.com/print?id=xM7x05fvUHAC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=genetic&sig=8IJfgLjdxx8qTMsJyy4lJmU4wUQ
Quotes from another book ?Eating Disorders? by L K George Hsu
=============================================================
http://print.google.com/print?id=Iz_iDSh5LBsC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36&dq=genetic&sig=qeKGGIwOVX0S72CBdYmvCwaUU5Q
http://print.google.com/print?id=Iz_iDSh5LBsC&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&dq=genetic&sig=1Qy4kDUiDO4lTSQntXkom-ZjVqU
http://print.google.com/print?id=Iz_iDSh5LBsC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=genetic&sig=0FpU19_lUbTEfF6l9sOxiykCbds
http://print.google.com/print?id=Iz_iDSh5LBsC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=genetic&sig=1azwfPjrC1GFhyGY81TVOiwg7-A
?They are complex conditions that arise from a combination of
behavioral, emotional, psychological, interpersonal and social
factors. While scientists don't know for sure what causes a person to
become unhealthy and anorexic, studying multiples have given them some
clues about the genetic impact of the disorder. A study of over 1,000
sets of female twins by the Medical College of Virginia helped
scientists identify the risk factors for bulimia. Their research
showed that pairs of identical (or monozygotic) twins had a much
higher incidence of disorders than fraternal twins. Because identical
twins share a genetic link (they have the same DNA), scientists made
the connection that heredity plays a role in the disorder.
Some of the other emotional, psychological and environmental factors
that cause eating disorders may make twins and multiple particularly
susceptible. For example:
· Feelings of lack of control in life
· History of being teased or ridiculed based on size
· Cultural norms that value people based on the physical appearance.
· Overachieving personality
Twins are constantly being compared, and often their physical
attributes are the basis for comparison and contrast. No matter how
much alike they are, the public will always try to distinguish one
twin as "bigger," "thinner," or "prettier." Multiples may feel driven
to rebel against such labeling, or try to gain control over their
physical appearance by using food to compensate. Because they are
constantly compared to another individual, they may have a distorted
body image, always viewing themselves in relation to their co-twin
rather than having a true perception of themselves as an individual.?
http://multiples.about.com/od/medicalissues/a/eatingdisorder.htm
Here is an abstract of a large study of twins and eating disorders:
?A sample of 680 11- and 602 17-year-old female twins was used to
examine (a) age differences in genetic and environmental influences on
disordered eating attitudes and behaviors and (b) associations between
body mass index (BMI) and eating attitudes and behaviors. Univariate,
biometrical model-fitting analyses
indicated that 1 I-year-old twins exhibited less genetic and greater
shared environmental influence on eating attitudes and behaviors than
17-year-old twins. Bivariate model-fitting analyses indicated that the
relationship between BMI and eating attitudes was mediated primarily
by common shared environmental
influences in 11-year-old twins and common genetic influences in
17-year-old twins. Nonetheless, the majority of genetic influences on
eating attitudes and behaviors in older twins were due to genetic
effects that are independent of those operating in BMI.?
http://www.psych.umn.edu/faculty/McGue/McGue%20Pubs/136%20Klump%20et%20al.%202000%20J%20of%20Abnorm.pdf
?Although disordered eating can run in families, there's not a lot of
evidence in Halley's case that my weight issues created hers. "It's
always hard to know how much of the illness is genetic and how much is
environmental," says Marlene Schwartz, Ph.D., author of Helping Your
Child Overcome an Eating Disorder: What You Can Do at Home (New
Harbinger Press, 2003). "But I don't think the fact that you have
struggled with your weight is a key factor in your daughter's issues."
Indeed, Halley is the first to admit that her desire to be thin
springs from her need to be perfect and find her place among her
peers. "It has nothing to do with you, Mom," she says with great
disdain.?
http://www.aarpmagazine.org/health/Articles/a2004-11-17-mag-motherdaughter.html
Offspring of women with eating disorders
?Children of women with eating disorders had significantly lower birth
weights and lengths than control children. There were no differences
observed in childhood temperament or mothers' satisfaction with
children's appearance. Mothers with eating disorders had more
difficulty maintaining breastfeeding and they made significantly fewer
positive comments about food and eating than control mothers during
the mealtime observation.
Discussion Feeding behavior in women with eating disorders appears to
be problematic from pregnancy through the toddler years and has
various manifestations from low birth weight, to difficulties with
breast feeding, to detached and noninteractive mealtimes. Although
these factors are unlikely to cause eating disorders, they may
contribute to a permissive environment in which a genetic
predisposition is more likely to be expressed. © 1999 by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 25: 123-133, 1999.?
Elizabeth Waugh, Cynthia M. Bulik
International Journal of Eating Disorders
Volume 25, Issue 2, 1999. Pages 123-133
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
You can purchase the entire article for $25 USD
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/accessdenied?ID=40004268&Act=2138&Code=4717&Page=/cgi-bin/fulltext/40004268/PDFSTART
?How do eating disorders develop?
==================================
The cognitive theory behind eating disorders postulates that an
individual defines and evaluates oneself excessively in terms of shape
and weight. The pursuit of thinness and/or weight loss becomes the
main focus for the individual with an eating disorder. The tendency to
judge self-worth in terms of weight and shape drives the individual to
diet restrictively. Strict dieting, in turn, leads to psychological
deprivation and physiological hunger. When combined with life stress,
negative emotions, and poor self-image, hunger can trigger a binge. A
binge elicits feelings of guilt, shame, self-loathing, and
uncomfortable feelings of fullness. To compensate for the binge and a
fear of gaining weight, bulimics may vomit, use laxatives, abuse
diuretics or exercise excessively. Individuals with binge eating
disorder do not use compensatory behaviors to offset the binge.
Instead, they will attempt to restrict their food intake again (i.e.
skip breakfast and lunch the day following an evening binge). The
continuation of strict dieting propels the binge cycle. The belief
that through weight control one can increase self-esteem leads to the
exact opposite-- psychological distress, guilt, shame and
worthlessness.?
http://www.cognitivetherapynyc.com/problems.asp?sid=251
?CONCLUSIONS: There may be a common familial vulnerability for
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Major depressive disorder,
obsessive-compulsive disorder, and substance dependence are not likely
to share a common cause with eating disorders. However, obsessional
personality traits may be a specific familial risk factor for anorexia
nervosa.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9672050&dopt=Abstract
Risk Factors
=============
?What are the risk factors for eating disorders?
You might have developed unhealthy eating habits in your efforts to
control or alleviate emotional difficulties. If you feel out of
control because of internal conflict or circumstances beyond your
control, you might have unconsciously turned to food to ease your pain
or exert some control over your life.
Common circumstances and risk factors that contribute to the
development of eating disorders include:
·Family problems or a troubled home life ? Family instability can
wreak havoc on your sense of security. If the home is a place of
yelling, violence or neglect, self esteem suffers. Additional problems
are caused by incompetent or neglectful parents. Taking on the
responsibilities and problems of an adult, like paying bills or
watching younger siblings, can create feelings of powerlessness and
insecurity.
·Major life changes ? Most people, and particularly young people, are
comforted by a sense of predictability and security. When life changes
suddenly and dramatically, it can seem very scary and dangerous.
Events that could have this effect include: divorce, death of a loved
one, puberty, moving to a new place, starting high school, etc.
·Romantic or social problems ? Romantic problems and friendship
instability can cause significant upheaval and insecurity. Lack of
perspective may cause a person to feel like a breakup is the end of
love and acceptance forever.
Psychological Factors:
·Low self-esteem
·Feelings of inadequacy or lack of control in life
·Depression, anxiety, anger, or loneliness
·Painful emotions or stress
Interpersonal Factors:
·Troubled family and personal relationships
·Difficulty expressing emotions and feelings
·History of being teased or ridiculed based on size or weight
?Who is most at risk to develop an eating disorder?
Adolescents and young adults are mostly like to develop an eating
disorder, but some research indicates that the onset can occur as
young as childhood or later in adulthood.
Eating disorders affect males and females, all socio-economic classes
and ethnic groups. Statistically, women have more eating disorders
than men, due to societal and cultural stereotypes that favor thin
women. However, eating disorders are not just a "woman?s problem."
Males preoccupied with shape and weight can also develop eating
disorders as well as dangerous shape control practices like steroid
use.?
http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eating_disorder_treatment.htm
?"When we started to do twin studies, we were all surprised, given
that we had all grown up in that sociocultural tradition of eating
disorders. When we look at those three pockets of variance, we
actually find that the heritability of bulimia nervosa, for example,
is somewhere between 59% and 83%. So what we are saying is the
liability for developing bulimia nervosa is predominately affected by
genetic factors. Shared environment wasn't terribly important. The
remainder of risk comes out in those unique environmental
factors--those slings and arrows of outrageous fortune," Bulik said.
"Similar results came for anorexia nervosa--with the heritability of
58% to 76%. Again, shared environment wasn't terribly important, and
the unique environment seemed to influence risk for anorexia nervosa."
Note that ?heritability? does not mean the same as the chances.
?Heritability only describes how much variation in the phenotype is
attributable to variation in genotype and environment, and not how
much the genotype and environment as a whole actually effects
phenotype, for example, the amount of variation in the genotype for
'number of fingers' in humans is negligible, so it will show a very
low heritability.?
http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p040801b.html
http://www.answers.com/heritability&r=67
Sexual Abuse
============
?Conclusion: Childhood sexual abuse is a risk factor for bulimia
nervosa with significant comorbidity. Further study of the nature of
this relationship is warranted. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc.
Psychiatry, 1997, 36(8):1107-1115.?
http://www.jaacap.com/pt/re/jaacap/abstract.00004583-199708000-00018.htm;jsessionid=Djt5BWBqWqv1dlxWkDXKd68bmkMMejKWRWtIuFk2HkwC0woLYjbP!1389088241!-949856145!9001!-1
?Abuse or trauma ? Physical or sexual abuse or other major trauma has
the potential to quickly erase your sense of self worth. Between
one-third and two-thirds of patients who go to treatment centers for
eating disorders have experienced some type of abuse in the past.?
http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eating_disorder_treatment.htm
?RESULTS: Of the 202 women who completed the questionnaires, 44
(21.8%) were victims of childhood sexual abuse. There were no
significant differences in the total or the subscale scores on the
Eating Disorder Inventory among women with no, one, or repeated
incidents of sexual abuse. However, women who reported an adverse
family background displayed significantly higher Eating Disorder
Inventory total and subscale scores than did women who assessed family
background as a secure base. CONCLUSIONS: The data in this nonclinical
female cohort suggest that childhood sexual abuse is neither necessary
nor sufficient for the later development of an eating disorder, while
an adverse family background may be an important etiological factor.?
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/151/8/1127
?Some people with eating disorders say they feel smothered in
overprotective families. Others feel abandoned, misunderstood, and
alone. Parents who overvalue physical appearance can unwittingly
contribute to an eating disorder. So can those who make critical
comments, even in jest, about their children's bodies.
These families tend to be overprotective, rigid, and ineffective at
resolving conflict. Sometimes mothers are emotionally cool while
fathers are physically or emotionally absent. At the same time, there
are high expectations of achievement and success. Children learn not
to disclose doubts, fears, anxieties, and imperfections. Instead they
try to solve their problems by manipulating weight and food.
In addition, research suggests that daughters of mothers with
histories of eating disorders may be at higher risk of eating
disorders themselves than are children of mothers with few food and
weight issues.
According to a report published in the April 1999 issue of the
International Journal of Eating Disorders, mothers who have anorexia,
bulimia, or binge eating disorder handle food issues and weight
concerns differently than mothers who have never had eating disorders.
Patterns are observable even in infancy. They include odd feeding
schedules, using food for rewards, punishments, comfort, or other
non-nutritive purposes, and concerns about their daughters' weight.
Still to be determined is whether or not daughters of mothers with
eating disorders will themselves become eating disordered when they
reach adolescence.?
Because of copyright laws, I am unable to reproduce the entire article
here. Please see the original article for multiple risk factors.
http://www.anred.com/causes.html
?RESULTS: Children of women with eating disorders had significantly
lower birth weights and lengths than control children. There were no
differences observed in childhood temperament or mothers' satisfaction
with children's appearance. Mothers with eating disorders had more
difficulty maintaining breastfeeding and they made significantly fewer
positive comments about food and eating than control mothers during
the mealtime observation. DISCUSSION: Feeding behavior in women with
eating disorders appears to be problematic from pregnancy through the
toddler years and has various manifestations from low birth weight, to
difficulties with breast feeding, to detached and noninteractive
mealtimes. Although these factors are unlikely to cause eating
disorders, they may contribute to a permissive environment in which a
genetic predisposition is more likely to be expressed.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10065389&dopt=Abstract
?Eating disorders in children, like in adults, are generally viewed as
a multi-determined syndrome with a variety of interacting factors,
biological, psychological, familial and socio-cultural. It is
important to recognize that each factor plays a role in predisposing,
precipitating, or perpetuating the problem.
In a study by Marchi and Cohen (1990) maladaptive eating patterns were
traced longitudinally in a large, random sample of children. They were
interested in finding whether or not certain eating and digestive
problems in early childhood were predictive of symptoms of bulimia
nervosa and anorexia nervosa in adolescence. Six eating behaviors were
assessed by maternal interview at ages 1through 10, ages 9 through 18,
and 2.5 years later when they were 12 through 20 years old. The
behaviors measured included (1) meals unpleasant; (2) struggle over
eating; (3) amount eaten; (4) picky eater; (5) speed of eating (6)
interest in food. Also data on pica (eating dirt, laundry starch,
paint, or other nonfood material), data on digestive problems, and
food avoidance were measured.
The findings revealed that children showing problems in early
childhood are definitely at an increased risk of showing parallel
problems in later childhood and adolescence. An interesting finding
was that pica in early childhood was related to elevated, extreme, and
diagnosable problems of bulimia nervosa. Also, picky eating in early
childhood was a predictive factor for bulimic symptoms in the 12-20
year olds. Digestive problems in early childhood were predictive of
elevated symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Furthermore, diagnosable levels
of anorexia and bulimia nervosa were presaged by elevated symptoms of
these disorders 2 years earlier, suggesting an insidious onset and an
opportunity for secondary prevention. This research would be even more
helpful in predicting adolescent onset of eating disorders if they had
traced the origins and development of these abnormal eating patterns
in children and then further examined alternative contributors to
these behaviors.?
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/childrenandED.html
?Eating disorders are not due to a failure of will or behavior;
rather, they are real, treatable medical illnesses in which certain
maladaptive patterns of eating take on a life of their own. The main
types of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.1 A
third type, binge-eating disorder, has been suggested but has not yet
been approved as a formal psychiatric diagnosis.2 Eating disorders
frequently develop during adolescence or early adulthood, but some
reports indicate their onset can occur during childhood or later in
adulthood.
Eating disorders frequently co-occur with other psychiatric disorders
such as depression, substance abuse, and anxiety disorders.1 In
addition, people who suffer from eating disorders can experience a
wide range of physical health complications, including serious heart
conditions and kidney failure which may lead to death. Recognition of
eating disorders as real and treatable diseases, therefore, is
critically important.
Females are much more likely than males to develop an eating disorder.
Only an estimated 5 to 15 percent of people with anorexia or bulimia4
and an estimated 35 percent of those with binge-eating disorder5 are
male.?
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/eatingdisorders.cfm
?Stein, Woolley, Cooper, and Fairburn (1994) examined the mealtime
behavior of mothers with a current or past eating disorder. They
found that in comparison to control mothers, the index mothers were
more intrusive and less facilitating during mealtimes and expressed
more negative emotion and more conflict with their infants. The index
mothers? infants were less cheerful during the meals and tended to
weigh less. This study provides some evidence that actual feeding
environment may be problematic in the development of healthy eating
behaviors in infants of eating disordered women.
A study by Waugh and Bulik (1999) examined the offspring of women with
eating disorders as well. The focus of this study was on early
childhood experiences with food and eating behavior, as it is becoming
increasingly clear that eating disorders are familial and that genetic
and cultural factors play a significant role in the familial
transmission of eating disorders.
In this study, ten women with current or past diagnoses of anorexia
nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa and their children aged between 12 and
48 months were examined. Information was gathered by means of
maternal interviews and self-reports, health and development records,
a three-day food diary, and a videotaped lunchtime interaction.
Researchers found that children of women with eating disorders had
significantly lower birth weights and lengths than control children.
Mothers with eating disorders had more difficulty maintaining
breast-feeding. They also made significantly fewer positive comments
about food and eating than control women during the mealtime
observations.
Perhaps the most concerning finding in this and other studies is the
nature of the mealtime interaction. The absence of positive comments
during the meals and the failure to eat with their children indicates
that food and mealtimes continue to be an uncomfortable experience for
the women with histories of an eating disorder. ?
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/sanders.htm
?Eating behaviour, unlike many other biological functions, is often
subject to sophisticated cognitive control. One of the most widely
practised forms of cognitive control over food intake is dieting.
Many individuals express a desire to lose weight or improve their body
shape and thus engage in approaches to achieve their ideal body mass
index. However, problems can arise when dieting and/or exercise are
taken to extremes. The aetiology of eating disorders is usually a
combination of factors including biological, psychological, familial
and socio-cultural. The occurrence of eating disorders is often
associated with a distorted self-image, low self-esteem, non-specific
anxiety, obsession, stress and unhappiness (Mac Evilly & Kelly 2001).?
http://www.eufic.org/gb/heal/heal13.htm
?If either parent has a negative means of coping with life (Eating
Disorder, Alcoholism, Drug Addiction) the child will be at an
increased risk of developing a negative coping mechanism, including an
Eating Disorder.?
?If either parent suffers from an existing psychological condition
(whether diagnosed or not) such as depression, obsessive compulsive
disorder or anxiety, recent studies indicate that their child may be
born with a pre-disposition to the same. This pre-disposition would
increase their chances of developing a need to cope with the emotional
attributes of the illness later on, thus possibly developing an Eating
Disorder.?
?· Being that women tend to have a higher percentage of body-image
issues than men, mothers tend to influence their daughter's beliefs
about being comfortable with their own bodies. A girl with a mother
who has disordered eating patterns, who continuously diets or is
obsessed with appearance, and who may constantly berate herself and/or
her daughter about weight, will have a much higher chance of
developing an Eating Disorder later on.
· Girls may be influenced by mothers who seek to raise them as "good
wives to a husband". Be proper, don't gain weight, keep up with your
looks, never be caught dead without make-up all contribute to the
belief that they only deserve love if they look their best. Mother may
also lay a great deal of importance in cooking for a husband, while at
the same time sending messages to not gain weight and/or don't eat too
much. These can all contribute to the thought that food and/or weight
equals love.?
http://www.something-fishy.org/prevention/relationships.php
?Although it may not always seem so, your child pays a lot of
attention to what you say and do. If you are constantly complaining
about your weight or feel pressured to exercise in order to lose
weight or change the shape of your body, your child may learn that
losing weight is an important concern. If you are always on the
lookout for the new miracle diet, your child may learn that
restrictive dieting is a good way to lose weight. And if you tell your
child she would be much prettier if she lost a few pounds, she will
learn that the goal of weight loss is attractiveness and acceptance.
Here are some questions that can help you consider your own attitudes
and behaviors:
Am I unhappy with my body size and shape?
Am I always on a diet or going on a diet?
Do I make fun of overweight people?
Do I tease my child about body shape or weight?
Do I focus on exercise for body size and shape control or for health? ?
?Parents do not cause eating disorders
?While parents can contribute to their children?s eating disorders,
they are not the cause of these disorders. Eating disorders are
associated with emotional problems and are closely related to many
other health issues, such as depression, low self-esteem, physical and
sexual abuse, substance abuse, and problems at home or with friends.
Many factors, including genetics, can increase the likelihood that a
child will develop an eating disorder?
http://www.4woman.gov/BodyImage/bodywise/uf/parents.pdf
?In young women, the risk of developing anorexia is 0.5 to 1 percent,
and mortality is estimated at 4 to 10 percent.4,5 In the same
population, the risk of developing bulimia is 2 to 5 percent,1,6 and
the incidence of disordered eating that does not meet strict criteria
for eating disorders may be twice that of the above conditions.2
Frequent dieting and desire for weight loss occur much more commonly
than overt eating disorders. In 1999, the Youth Risk Behavior
Surveillance Survey7 reported that 58 percent of students in the
United States had exercised to lose weight, and 40 percent of students
had restricted caloric intake in an attempt to lose weight. Many
adolescents and young adults who do not meet the strict diagnostic
criteria for eating disorders have disordered eating patterns, which
can have a significant adverse impact on health. The distinction
between normal dieting and disordered eating is based on whether the
patient has a distorted body image.?
?Risk factors for developing an eating disorder include participation
in activities that promote thinness, such as ballet dancing, modeling,
and athletics,4 and certain personality traits, such as low
self-esteem, difficulty expressing negative emotions, difficulty
resolving conflict, and being a perfectionist.1 Eating disorders are
particularly common in young women with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Up
to one third of women with type 1 diabetes may have eating disorders,
and these women are at especially high risk of microvascular and
metabolic complications.
The role of family history in the development of eating disorders is
not clear. Some studies9 of twins demonstrate a strong link, and
others demonstrate no correlation. A family history of mood disorders
in a first-degree relative also might be a risk factor.?
?A wide variety of medical problems can masquerade as eating
disorders. Hyperthyroidism, malignancy, inflammatory bowel disease,
immunodeficiency, malabsorption, chronic infections, Addison's
disease, and diabetes should be considered before making a diagnosis
of an eating disorder. Most patients with a medical condition that
leads to eating problems express concern over their weight loss.
However, patients with an eating disorder have a distorted body image
and express a desire to be underweight.
Psychiatric comorbidity is extremely common; illnesses such as
affective disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, somatization
disorder, and substance abuse must be considered when patients present
with such symptoms.12
Major depression is the most common comorbid condition among patients
with anorexia, with a lifetime risk as high as 80 percent.5 Anxiety
disorders, especially social phobia, also are common.5
Obsessive-compulsive disorder has a prevalence of 30 percent among
patients with eating disorders.13 Substance abuse prevalence is
estimated at 12 to 18 percent in patients with anorexia and 30 to 70
percent in patients with bulimia.
Personality disorders (Axis II diagnoses) also are common, with
comorbidity rates reported at 21 to 97 percent.15 The wide range is
related to the complexity of evaluating these diagnoses. Patients with
bulimia are more likely to have a cluster B diagnosis (dramatic/
erratic), whereas patients with anorexia are more likely to have a
cluster C diagnosis (avoidant/anxious).?
http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030115/297.html
?Some individuals with bulimia struggle with addictions, including
abuse of drugs and alcohol, and compulsive stealing. Like individuals
with anorexia, many people with bulimia suffer from clinical
depression, anxiety, OCD, and other psychiatric illnesses. These
problems, combined with their impulsive tendencies place, them at
increased risk for suicidal behavior.?
http://rf-web.tamu.edu/security/secguide/Eap/Eating.htm
Boys/Men
========
?Eating disorders most often affect young women. Less than 10% of
people with eating disorders are boys and men. A person who has an
eating disorder is not necessarily skinny. Some people with eating
disorders are even overweight. ?
http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/yourchild/eatdis.htm
?Both anorexia and bulimia tend to affect girls more than guys, but
10% of the people with eating disorders are guys. And, because we
typically think of eating disorders as only affecting girls, they
often go unrecognized in guys. Guys with eating disorders also tend to
focus more on athletic appearance or success than on just looking
thin.?
http://kidshealth.org/teen/food_fitness/problems/eat_disorder.html
· ?How many males have eating disorders?
The numbers seem to be increasing. Twenty years ago it was thought
that for every 10-15 women with anorexia or bulimia, there was one
man. Today researchers find that for every four females with anorexia,
there is one male, and for every 8-11 females with bulimia, there is
one male. (American Journal of Psychiatry 2001. 158: 570-574)?
o ?Males often begin an eating disorder at older ages than females do,
and they more often have a history of obesity or overweight.
o Heterosexual males are not exposed to the same intense cultural
pressures to be thin that women and girls endure. A casual review of
popular magazines and TV shows reveals that women are encouraged to
diet and be thin so they can feel good about themselves, be successful
at school and at work, and attract friends and romantic partners. Men,
on the other hand, are exhorted to be strong and powerful, to build
their bodies and make them large so they can compete successfully,
amass power and wealth, and defend and protect their frail, skinny
female companions.
o It's interesting to note that when women are asked what they would
do with one magic wish, they almost always want to lose weight. Men
asked the same question want money, power, sex, and the accessories of
a rich and successful lifestyle. They often think their bodies are
fine the way they are. If they do have body concerns, they often want
to bulk up and become larger and more muscular, not tiny like women
do. Males usually equate thinness with weakness and frailty, things
they desperately want to avoid.?
http://www.anred.com/males.html
?A sample of 1,373 high school students revealed that girls (63%) were
four times more likely than boys (16%) to be attempting to reduce
weight through exercise and caloric intake reduction. Boys were three
times more likely than girls to be trying to gain weight (28% versus
9%). The cultural ideal for body shape for men versus women continues
to favor slender women and athletic, V-shaped muscular men (Rosen &
Gross, 1987).
In general, men appear to be more comfortable with their weight and
perceive less pressure to be thin than women do. A national survey
indicated that only 41% of men are dissatisfied with their weight as
compared with 55% of women; moreover, 77% of underweight men liked
their appearance as opposed to 83% of underweight women. Males were
more likely than females to claim that if they were fit and exercised
regularly, they felt good about their bodies. Women were more
concerned with aspects of their appearance, particularly weight (Cash,
Winstead, & Janda, 1986).
DiDomenico and Andersen (1988) found that magazines targeted primarily
to women included a greater number of articles and advertisements
aimed at weight reduction (e.g., diet, calories) and those targeted at
men contained more articles and advertisements concerning fitness,
weight lifting, body building, or muscle toning. The magazines most
read by females ages 18-24 had 10 times more diet content than those
most popular among men in the same age group.?
http://www.pbs.org/perfectillusions/help/faq.html#7
One Man?s Story
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/thin/battle.html
Alcohol
========
?It has long been known that alcoholism runs in families. But it had
not been clear whether it was inherited or a result of environment.
Now researchers are gathering evidence that inheritance plays a role
and they have located likely neighborhoods for the genes that can lead
to alcoholism. These genes are for risk but not for destiny. It is
also proposed that alcoholism is a multi-gene phenomenon and not due
to a mutation in a single gene.
Ulrike Heberlein, geneticist at University of California, San
Francisco, has tested fruit flies and found a genetic defect called
?cheapdate? that causes certain flies to become intoxicated more
readily than others. By using a device called an inebriometer,
Heberlein and colleagues found that normal flies get intoxicated in
about 20 minutes while the ?cheapdate? flies do so in less than 15
minutes. The study of fruit fly genes is popular because of the
remarkable similarity they bear to human genes. It is generally
accepted that a sibling of an alcoholic is three to eight times as
likely to develop alcoholism as an individual with no family history
of the disease. However, this hypothesis has to accommodate
environmental factors that augment the tendency.
Differences in alcohol metabolizing (processing it chemically) enzymes
and the genes that encode them are the best understood factors that
influence drinking behavior and the risk of alcoholism.
Researchers have found one gene that is protective against alcoholism.
People of Far East Asian descent carry a mutation in the gene for the
enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase causing accumulation of acetaldehyde in
the blood and tissues after drinking. These individuals experience
facial flushing, headaches, palpitations, dizziness, and nausea soon
after drinking. This feature prevents such folks from becoming
alcoholics.?
http://www.chennaionline.com/science/BiotechCorner/11Bio08.asp
?What are the chances that they will become addicted to alcohol, or to
some other drug, for life? My father is an alcoholic and has been so
for most, if not all, of his life. He began drinking at about the age
of twelve, while an altar boy for his church/school often drinking the
wine and beer remaining from past festivals. My father?s drinking has
had a major effect on my life, since he spent lots of money drinking
and would then come home and fight with my mother. Alcohol has
long-term effects on a person and to their family that one should know
about before anyone begins drinking. The bulk of my research consisted
of the five books and five Internet sites along with personal
experiences.?
?Margaret O. Hyde believes that teenagers may become alcoholics in
order to ?defy their overprotective parents or to prove themselves to
their cool friends who are doing it? (42). Many of these alcoholics
will become anti-social alcoholics, the ones who like to fight and
argue when they are drunk. In a study published by the National
Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, researchers found that
this type of alcoholism is on the rise for both men and women alike
(Alcoholism). In much of my research, I found that genetics often
plays a factor in one?s path to becoming an alcoholic-That usually
when a persons family background shows a history of alcohol abuse that
that person has an increased chance of becoming a user.?
http://www.wowessays.com/dbase/ac5/cja10.shtml
?Ten percent of the adult drinkers in the U.S are considered
alcoholics or at least experience drinking problems to some degree.
Surveys have shown that more than one out of three Americans have a
personal friend or relative who has had a drinking problem for ten
years or longer.
http://www.school4u.com/israel/works/english/htm/alcoholism.htm
?A family history of alcoholism places a person at greater risk of
developing alcohol
problems.
? Children of alcoholics tend to exhibit other types of behavioral and
emotional problems.
? The neurotransmitter serotonin is believed to regulate many
behaviors and emotions.
? Genetic variation in the serotonin transporter gene may partially
determine overall levels
of serotonergic function.
?Some psychiatric genetic studies had previously documented a
relationship between the SS variant of 5-HTTLPR and alcohol
dependence, depression, anxiety and the personality trait neuroticism
(which is also a marker of NA). Some studies of alcoholics, however,
have found a relationship between the LL variant of 5-HTTLPR and low
levels of response to alcohol, alcohol dependence and antisocial
alcoholism. For the current study, researchers examined 47 families
classified by the fathers? alcoholism subtype. (The data were taken
from a larger, ongoing longitudinal family study on risks for
developing alcoholism and other problems.) The authors found that the
LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR was associated with both BD and NA in COAs. In
addition, significantly more LL than SS/SL genotype children reported
they had already consumed alcohol.?
?Genetic factors contribute up to 40 percent to the risk of developing alcoholism.
? Environmental factors likely contribute the remaining risk.
? Those at most risk are children of alcoholics (COAs), but not all
COAs become alcoholics.
? Biochemical markers or ?biomarkers? may help identify specific
individuals at highest risk.
?However, not all children of alcoholics become alcoholic, in part,
because not all family members will inherit a combination of genes
that increases risk for alcoholism.? The challenge is to be able to
identify specific individuals in families with alcoholism who are at
the greatest risk. One approach is to study the response of B-E to
alcohol consumption. B-E is a hormone that is manufactured within the
endogenous opioid system of the brain. It produces euphoria and acts
like the body?s own morphine, said Froehlich.?
http://www.nattc.org/pdf/ASME_Book/04genetics.pdf
Drugs
======
?This PA seeks investigator-initiated applications for research
projects that identify chromosomal loci and genetic variation in genes
and haplotypes that are associated with increased vulnerability to
addiction or dependence on stimulants (e.g., cocaine and amphetamine),
narcotics (e.g., opiates), nicotine, benzodiazepines, barbiturates,
cannabis, hallucinogens, and/or multiple drugs of abuse in human
beings. Much diagnostic effort has been focused on DSM criteria; we
are additionally interested in applications that will examine
intermediate phenotypes (endophenotypes) to better assess the
molecular genetics of drug addiction and drug addiction vulnerability.
Thus, applications examining the genetics of addiction vulnerability
to both illicit and legal drugs of abuse are relevant to this PA.?
?Evidence from adoption and twin studies, from genetic strains of
rodents, and from induced mutations in mice, suggests that
heritability may play a role in vulnerability to addiction. The
genetic variants underlying increased vulnerability to drug addiction
are unknown. However, new scientific opportunities may now make it
possible to identify and characterize the genetic variants that
contribute to addiction vulnerability. This knowledge will increase
the prospects of improved diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of drug
addiction. By better understanding the genetic factors involved in
the addiction process, the environmental contributions to this disease
can also be better understood.?
http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-03-155.html
Depression
===========
?Genetic risk factors are well established for major affective
disorders and a recent twin study has suggested that unipolar
depression has a stronger genetic influence than was previously
thought. McGuffin and colleagues [1] have estimated that the
heritability (i.e. the proportion of liability explained by genetic
risk factors) may be over 70% in a clinically ascertained twin sample
while a population based twin study resulted in a very similar
estimate using a re-test method of assessing lifetime diagnosis [2].
The majority of studies suggest a relative risk to siblings (?s) of
affective disorder is in the region of 3 [3]. However, a recent study
comparing the siblings of unipolar depressives with the siblings of
healthy controls using strict definitions of both depression and
health found a substantially higher ?s of over 9 [4].
The inheritance of unipolar depression is complex and involves an
inter-play of genetic and environmental factors. For unipolar
depression these include certain types of severe and threatening life
events such as events associated with humiliation or loss [5,6].
Despite an excess of females to males of about 2 to 1 for unipolar
depression, the heritability in a clinically ascertained sample was
the same in men and women [1].?
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-244X/4/42
** ?First-degree relatives of depressed patients (their parents,
siblings, and children) are at a 3-fold increased risk for
depression.?
?Studies have shown us that depression tends to run in families.
First-degree relatives of depressed patients (their parents, siblings,
and children) are at a 3-fold increased risk for depression. However,
since family studies cannot tease apart genetic susceptibility and
environmental susceptibility, both of which may be shared within a
family, twin studies have provided us with additional insight.
Monozygotic (identical) twins, who share 100% of their genetic
information (DNA), are more likely to both have a mood disorder than
dizygotic (fraternal) twins, who share, on average, 50% of their
genetic information. This difference is evidence for a genetic
susceptibility for depression. The heritability of depression is
around 40%.?
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-244X/4/42
?The fact that parent and child are both depressed may not indicate a
genetic component, but rather a social learning effect since there are
many shared family experiences and considerable opportunities to
observe and influence one another (especially in regards to coping
strategies). Therefore, depression may appear to run in families
because, on average, there is greater contact between a depressed
individual and his or her twin than between the same individual and
other immediate family members (and similarly, on average, there is
also greater contact with immediate family members than with more
distant family members). Another reason for the high heritability
ascribed to depression and a critique of many adoption studies regards
the fact that adoptive parents are frequently relatives, friends or
strangers who similar to the family (race, parental age etc.) and
hence either genetically, psychologically or socially similar
(Kendler, 1993). This presents a definite bias that may result in an
overestimation of the heritability of depression.?
http://www.sfu.ca/~wwwpsyb/issues/1997/summer/bedi.htm
Charts:
=======
According to this slide, one of a series, there is a ten-fold increase
in risk of an eating disorder for first degree relatives of a person
with an eating disorder.
http://www.charite.de/ch/medgen/eumedis/medgen05/gen-eating-dis/Folie017.png
The entire series can be seen here. The series is a set of well done
illustrations of the genetics and other factors of eating disorders.
http://www.charite.de/ch/medgen/eumedis/medgen05/gen-eating-dis.html
Eating Disorders by Country
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/mor_eat_dis
White/Black women eating disorders
http://www.mchb.hrsa.gov/whusa04/images/37_Eating_Disorders.gif
You may be interested in participating this genetic study:
http://www.wpic.pitt.edu/research/angenetics/participate.html
There you go! If any part of my answer is unclear, or repeated
information you already have, please request an Answer Clarification,
before rating, and I will be happy to respond.
Sincerely, Crabcakes-ga
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