Muhammad was
"Öone of the greatest geniuses the world has known. To create a
literary masterpiece, to found a major religion and a new world power
are not ordinary achievementsÖWhen he began his mission, a
dispassionate observer would not have given him a chance."
excerpt from Muhammad, by Karen Armstrong
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Successor to Muhammad
After Muhammad's death, great debate arose about who should be the
successor to the political and religious leadership of Islam.
One group argued that leadership must be passed to an elected member
from Muhammadís tribe - someone linked by intermarriage who made the
Hijra with him. They supported Abu Bakr who was the Prophet's trusted
friend and confidant, as well as the father of Muhammad's young wife
Aisha. These Muslims became known as the Sunni. Elective succession
became the central tenant of Sunni politics and theory.
The other group believed the true leaders of Islam should be direct
descendants of Mohammedís family, with kinship being the determining
factor - and in keeping with accepted practices of pre-Islamic Arabia.
They favored Ali - Mohammedís son-in-law and husband of his favored
daughter Fatima - to assume the leadership of Islam. These Muslims
became known as the Shiite or Shia, the "partisans of Ali." Familial
succession through a direct descendent became the central tenant of
Shia politics and theory.
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Divisions within Islam - The Second Civil War
In 680, Hussein - the son of Ali and grandson of the Prophet Muhammad
- led an insurrection against the Umayyad Caliphate. Meeting at
Karbala in Iraq, Hussein, his family, and most of his followers were
defeated. Hussein was beheaded. For the Shiites, this became known
as the Massacre at Karbala and their defeat became central to the
Shiite interpretation of Islamic history.
The day of Hussein's death is commemorated as the martyrdom of the
Prophet's family - the event which destined Shiites to become a
minority group of martyrs and who regard the majority Sunni leaders as
usurpers to the caliphate.
Thus, while the doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shiite are of
only minor significance, the historical sense of martyrdom and
persecution are of major significance.
Before Karbala, the Shia had been a political party, opting for the
traditional Arabic tradition of selecting leaders on the basis of
kinship. After Karbala, the Shia became a religious sect and a
numerical minority within the Islamic world.
At no time have the Shia comprised more than 13% of the total
believers in Islam, and in most Islamic nations, they continue to
retain their minority status - with the one major exception being
Iran. This experience has shaped different religious and political
attitudes and behaviors between Sunni and Shia that persist into the
21st Century.
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Divisions within Islam - the 21st Century
Sunni Muslims, the descendents of those who supported tribal
leadership of the Islamic political and religious world, are the
majority of Muslims (approximately 87%). In most Sunni-dominated
nations, followers are politically moderate and recognize the need for
political separation between church and state.
Shiite Muslims, the descendents of those who supported familial
leadership, are the minority of Muslims (about 12%). Shiites are
extremely traditional in their interpretation of the Koran and Islamic
law, give tremendous powers to their clergy and religious scholars
whom they allow to interpret the Koran and Islamic law, and believe
that Islamic law should govern all political matters. Shiite
populations predominate in Iran and Iraq, and play an important
minority role in Lebanon, Kuwait, Bahrain, and the United Arab
Emirates.
Both Sunni and Shiite Muslims agree about how Muslim's must live in
their everyday life to revere Muhammad's teachings, and they are
conscious of their cultural and spiritual distinctiveness as Arabs and
as followers of Islam. However, they disagree aboutÖ
who should lead the Muslims,
the extent of such leadership;
the degree of modernization acceptable in Muslim society - and the
extent to which such modernization should include Westernization; and
the role between church and state.
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The Sharia - The Path of God
The Sharia is derived from both the Koran and Hadith and, as such,
defines the religious and secular duties, belies, and practices of the
faithful - true Muslims who follow the Path of God.
True Muslims who follow the Path of God areÖ
1. Obedient to God and his Prophet by joining a single religious and
political community united in a religious vision.
2. Involved in a struggle (jihad) against oppression.
3. Participants in the Five Pillars or acts of devotion, by:
reciting the shahada, or profession of faith, which states "There is
but one God, and Muhammad is his Apostle."
performing the salat, or formal worship, by praying five times a day
in a set sequence of motions;
paying zakat, or legal poor tax of about 10% of all their wealth to
help the poor and purify the giver.
fasting during the holy month of Ramadan from dawn to dusk; and
making a hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in oneís lifetime.
4. Followers of Islamic Law which:
prohibits corruption, fraud, cheating, false contracts in business,
flaunting wealth, arrogance, and exploitation of the poor, orphans,
and women.
prescribes strict punishments for slander, stealing, murder, the use
of intoxicants, gambling, and adultery; and
delineates a set of norms that govern family, criminal, contract, and
international law and regulate marriage, divorce, inheritance, sexual
relations, drinking, and issues of war and peace.
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Conclusions
A Historical Excursion through the Arabian Peninsula before and after Muhammad
1. Before the birth of Islam, the area now known as the Middle East
consisted of two large empires (Byzantine and Persian), two
independent kingdoms (Ethiopia and Yemen), and a large, politically
unorganized peninsula (Arabia).
Geography, trade, politics, and religion greatly influenced the growth
of the entire region.
The inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula had been dramatically
influenced by the geography of the entire region, the politics of
their warring neighbors to the north and west, and the influx of
foreigners.
2. With the birth of Islam, Muhammad sought to restore the one true
religion to his people. In so doing, he proclaimed
the existence of one true God, thereby rejecting the prevailing
polytheistic beliefs of the Arabian people;
that God was the creator, sustainer, and judge of the universe; and
that in order to be saved and eternally rewarded on Judgment Day,
Arabs must follow the straight path to God via the Five Pillars of
Islam.
3. During Muhammad's rule, he expanded the Islamic world and united
most of the Arab people under one religion. Such unity, however,
dissolved after his death.
4. The argument about who should become ruler over the Islamic world
caused a permanent split within Islam between the Sunni and Shiite
Muslims. While the doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shiite are
of only minor significance in today's world, the Shiite's historical
sense of martyrdom and persecution continue to cause internal conflict
within Islam and external conflict with the global community. In many
areas of the Arab world, Shia attitudes have given rise to what is
currently known as Islamic fundamentalism. |
