Hi Proffesor-ga,
This is an interesting topic. Human memory is one of the areas in
neurobiology that little is known about. There are many theories and
as they are explored pieces are added to our understanding, but the
puzzle is far from complete.
"The fate of the [memory] trace after retrieval and post-retrieval
interference depend on the task, context and brain region involved?The
notion that recurrent vulnerability windows exist in LTM [long term
memory]. At the end of the day, will we find a master solution to the
molecular mechanisms that keep memory persistent over long periods of
time? What we already know about the molecular mechanisms of
acquisition and short-term memory hints that this is unlikely to be
the case."
Molecular bases of long-term memories: a question of persistence.
Yadin Dudai. Curr. Opin. Neurobiology, 2002.
http://www.weizmann.ac.il/neurobiology/labs/dudai/PDFs/Dudai2002.pdf
In using hypnosis to stimulate recall of repressed memories, some
unknown biological process must be activated. Since so little is known
about the mechanism involved in memory, trying to tease out how
producing an altered state effects the retrieval process is decades
away. Studies on humans are limited by practical and ethical concerns.
Basically, your theories are as likely to be accurate as any others.
Add to this that the practice of memory recall under hypnosis has come
under fire in recent years due to its use in legal procedures.
Forensic hypnosis attempts to help witnesses remember more details of
a crime they may have seen. Questions about the accuracy of the
memories produced through this method have been raised. Many accounts
provided under hypnosis proved incorrect or unverifiable.
Recovered memory therapy (RMT) - using hypnotism to retrieve repressed
instances of sexual abuse - is a form of therapy for neurotic
behavior, mainly in women. Many RMT therapists are now being sued.
There have been instances where victims do not recall traumatic
incidents until years later -- at the urging of the therapist. With no
evidence other than memories "discovered" under hypnosis, there are
serious questions about whether the suspected abuse ever occurred.
Therapists have been accused of implanting of false memories. While
it is a useful tool, there are many who feel that it has created
memories, in some cases, rather than retrieving actual incidents. The
misuse of hypnotherapy scripts and suggestions on patients and their
families has turned many supporters into doubters.
I have included some references that discuss this situation at the end
of this answer. It does indirectly relate to your theory.
One article that doesn't focus on hypnosis but does discuss your
hypothesis, that the human mind remembers all things that it
experiences, is:
Neurobiology of Reconstructed Memory. W. Jake Jacobs & Lynn Nadel
(University of Arizona).
Journal of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1998, Vol. 4, No. 4, 110-1134
The authors discuss the biological processes involved with storing
memories and "consider how information about prior experience is
acquired, how it is stored in the brain, and how this stored
information is used in remembering." The conclusions are that all
experiences are stored, but they may be, and often are, enhanced by
the mind of the person involved as
they occur. In reconstructing the "memories" at a later date, error
may be embedded in the original memory. The article is technical, but
clear, and definitely worth looking at. However, the authors do make a
case for every event getting stored in the process they describe. It
may provide a theoretical foundation for your hypothesis.
http://www.u.arizona.edu/~nadel/pdf/Papers%20as%20PDFs/1998%20PDFs/Psych,%20Publ%20Policy%20&%20Law%2098.pdf
Despite the hypnotherapy controversy, there are still many case
studies that do feature people who have retrieved repressed memories
using hypnosis. The technique is powerful when used appropriately by a
trained professional. One site explains:
"Hypnosis strategies that include regressing to an initial sensitizing
event, emotional clearing, uncovering misconceptions that were
developed and doing reeducation, sometimes has the effect of an
imprint. The work can be so powerful that in many cases major lasting
transformation takes place in one session."
The Regression Therapy Training Guide. Randal Churchill (2002)
http://www.transformingpress.com/
Start the case histories with a magazine article that is lyrical as
well as informative. This article initially appeared in the Pacific
Sun. There is no date given for the original publication, but it is
published on the Hypnotherapy Training Institute site. While
interviewing the trainers for an article on hypnosis, the writer
expresses the desire to work through a water phobia:
"My brother jumped from the side of the pool onto the air mattress,
the ship of which I was captain, and I saw myself fall beneath the
surface and swallow what seemed an enormous amount of water.
Previously, my conscious mind had turned off at this point, no doubt
protecting me from the memory. In hypnosis, assured of my physical
safety, I was able to recall my mother pulling me above the surface
choking and coughing..." He goes on to describe the experience and how
it eliminated his lifelong fear of swimming and sailing.
Experiencing Hypnotic Regression Therapy: A journey through time and
space? Keith Thompson (1997)
http://www.hypnoschool.com/hypnotic_regression.html
Hypnotic World (http://Hypnoticworld.com), the resource and training
site begun by Faith and Adam Waude in 1999, lists many case histories
as well as history and other information.
There are several stories that tell of "lost" memories retrieved under
hypnosis. Two examples that stand out are:
http://hypnoticworld.com/Articles/lostring.asp
http://hypnoticworld.com/case_histories/recovered_memories.asp
Additional case studies of memory recall during hypnosis are included
in "Hypnosis Heals," The International Registry of Professional
Hypnotherapists' site. These are reports of actual patient sessions
where repressed memories and emotions were expressed as physical
symptoms. When the memories were rediscovered, the symptoms
disappeared:
http://hypnosis.org/HYPNOSISHEALS.pdf
This is a bit of a stretch, but in a 2004 article two New Zealand
researchers found that rats who were given a shock every time a light
blinked developed an expected "startle response" when the light was
turned -- on even without the electrical shock. This is classical
conditioning and is used for many memory studies. The rats remember
that the light produced the pain. Then the rats were retrained, "fear
extinguished," with each light flash followed by a brain (amygdala)
stimulation. The result was that the "startle response" could not be
eliminated from these animals. In control animals where the brain
stimulation was not applied, the fear was extinguished. A second
experiment, with the same trained rats after the response had finally
disappeared, involved only the brain stimulation. The startle response
returned at full strength. "The extinction deficit and fear
reinstatement results were interpreted to suggest that amygdala
stimulation activates acquired excitatory stimulus-affect neural
connections formed during Pavlovian fear conditioning." This suggests
that stimulating the amygdala caused a permanent response to form.
Might it be possible that, in humans, a traumatic event that is
especially fear inducing activates the amygdala and creates a memory
that is somehow repressed? The memory would sit waiting for that same
stimulation to occur to rekindle the emotions of the original event.
That would be one theory to account for a flood of memories...
explaining your situation where "trauma or extreme stress could. i.e.,
after being hit by a car, childhood memories return." Could the
altered state produced by hypnotism somehow allow patients to tap into
emotions that kindle the original fear response? It is reading quite a
bit more into this experiment than was ever intended, but give it some
thought.
Extinction deficit and fear reinstatement after electrical stimulation
of the amygdala: implications for kindling-associated fear and
anxiety.
J. Kelletta and L. Kokkinidis (University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand)
Neuroscience, Volume 127, Issue 2, 2004, 277-287
[Abstract Only] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T0F-4CS4JCF-4&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=342485631&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4861&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=818cbbfbd503a1a030a7412e473af84c
Also see:
Fear and the Amygdala (1998),
http://web.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBriefings/fear.html
Time-Dependent Sensitization (2001),
http://home.tampabay.rr.com/lymecfs/kindling.htm
"After a passage of time, and without further exposure, a new exposure
will suddenly produce the altered experience and/or behavior, or alter
the immune function. Finally, time-dependent sensitization shows
cross-sensitization, which means that after a given individual is
sensitized, other substances, different from the one causing the
initial exposure, will now, produce the altered experience, and/or
behavior or function in a stereotyped way for each individual."
Studies of traumatic experiences and reactions support this line of
exploration "...hyperarousal caused the characteristic memory
disturbances that accompany traumatization, by interfering with
information processing on a verbal, symbolic level. Hyperarousal
causes memories to be split off from consciousness and to be stored as
visual images or bodily sensations. Fragments of these "visceral"
memories return later as physiological reactions, emotional states,
nightmares, flashbacks, or behavioral reenactments (van der Kolk & van
der Hart, 1989)."
The Biological Response to Psychic Trauma: Mechanisms and Treatment of
Intrusion and Numbing. Bessel A. van der Kolk and Jose Saporta
(Harvard Medical School).
Anxiety Research (U.K.), Volume 4: Pages 199-212. (Received 23 December 1991)
Although not directly an answer to your question, researching this
topic reveals that, in many cases, hypnosis is not used correctly and
does not "unlock" hidden memories.
Recalling events that did not happen, 'false memories' -- or that did
not happen as they are remembered, 'confabulation' -- has undermined
the belief that this technique is reliable. A hypnotized person is
vulnerable to suggestions. Without conscious control of the recall, it
is very likely that memories will be implanted by the
therapist...about events that never took place.
As I explained above, the use of this technique in legal arenas and in
reported cases of sexual abuse, where the victim has completely
repressed the traumatic event(s), has led to many studies in this
area. This is a sampling of the information:
"The Trauma-Memory Argument and Recovered Memory Therapy" by John F.
Kihlstrom of Yale University contains a section titled:
'Comments on the Report of the British Psychological Society Working
Party on Recovered Memories'
[An edited version of this article appeared in The Recovered
Memory/False Memory Debate, ed. by K. Pezdek & W.P. Banks. San Diego,
Ca.: Academic Press, 1996, pp. 297-311.]
(http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/argument.htm) which states,
"Over the past few years, a number of professional associations have
taken critical positions on the trauma-memory argument and recovered
memory therapy (American Medical
Association, 1994; American Psychiatric Association, 1993; Australian
Psychological Society, 1994). In their statements, each of these
organizations has noted that recovered memory therapy rests on a weak
scientific base, warned of the problem of uncorroborated and false
memories, and urged caution in dealing with patients' memories and
beliefs about childhood sexual abuse."
There are several other published papers with relevant information on
the site, last revised on 07/08/05:
http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/trauma.htm
A study designed to test errors in recall was reported by UC Irvine
cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus:
From kissing frogs to demonic possession, people are led to believe
they experienced the improbable. Eureka Alert Public release date:
16-Feb-2003
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2003-02/uoc--fkf021303.php
A forum discussion of Loftus' book, "The Reality of Repressed Memory"
contains quite a bit of material that should interest you:
"Re: The Reality of Repressed Memory"
Tue Nov 07 1995 - http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Hypermail/Thinking.Psychologically96/0026.html
Fri Nov 10 1995 - http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Hypermail/Thinking.Psychologically96/0029.html
This response cites several references that are relevant:
Fri Nov 10 1995 - http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~harnad/Hypermail/Thinking.Psychologically96/0030.html
The Forensic Use of Hypnosis cites an abundance of references in
making the argument that "There is a widely held, erroneous belief
that hypnosis will enhance the accuracy of
memory, which is at the core of the forensic application of this technique...":
Orne, M.T., & Dinges, D.F. Hypnosis, Forensic use of. In G. Adleman
(Ed.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, Vol. I . (2 vols.) Cambridge, MA:
Birkhauser Boston, 1987. Pp. 510-511.
http://www.psych.upenn.edu/history/orne/orneetal1987inadelmanbc510511.html.
The False Memory Syndrome Foundation provides research and articles on
this topic which may be helpful to you. One very well documented
discussion is:
Recovered Memories: Are They Reliable? http://www.fmsfonline.org/reliable.html
"Professional organizations have responded to the challenge of that
question. This document contains excerpts from some professional
statements that help to clarify the issue..." The comments range from
1985 through 1998 and the consensus is that extreme caution is
warranted when using hypnotherapy techniques to retrieve traumatic
repressed memories.
An interesting article from the News-Telegraph on 8/27/2001 addresses
recall of past events under hypnosis. The author cites a study showing
that erroneous information may be confused with "real" memories while
hypnotized:
"Hypnosis does not help accurate memory recall, says study"
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/08/27/whyp27.xml
The basic message is that, "Hypnosis does not help people recall
events more accurately, but does make them hold to inaccurate memories
more stubbornly..."
A site that focuses on the Kennedy assassination discusses false
memories and confabulation since hypnosis was one tool used by
prosecutors to obtain testimony in this case:
"Perry Raymond Russo's Hypnosis"
http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/hypnosis.htm
While these publications and discussions do not support the use of RMT
as a memory aid, they are not damning hypnotherapy, but urging further
study. You should be aware that these concerns exist. They do not
negate the benefits of hypnotherapy as a tool for assisting with the
recall of repressed or forgotten events, but they do make a good case
for proper training and extreme caution when interpreting results for
anyone who intends to practice this form of psychotherapy.
Search Terms:
1. hypnosis recall
2. Case history memory recall hypnosis
These terms give the basic sites to follow to the above information.
It is a fascinating trail. Good luck with your research!
If you find that you require any clarification of this response,
please let me know.
Regards,
bcguide-ga |
