Hello Actie,
Indigenous Peoples and Subjugation
========================================
?Current negotiations concerning agriculture within the framework
of the World Trade Organization do not bode well for the continued
existence of indigenous farming.?
?Closely linked to the land problem is the territorial issue.
Indigenous peoples have been historically rooted in specific
locations, their original homelands, which in some cases constitute
well defined geographical areas. Indigenous peoples organizations now
demand the recognition and demarcation of these territories as a
necessary step to ensure their social, economic and cultural survival.
The territory of the San Blas Kuna is constitutionally protected in
Panama; so is that of the Yanomami in northern Brazil. The Mapuche of
southern Chile and the Miskitos of Nicaragua, among many others, have
been in the forefront of these struggles in their countries.?
?Traditionally few governments have taken the rights and interests
of indigenous peoples into account when making plans for major
development projects. As the projects mature, which may take several
years depending on their characteristics, the concerns of indigenous
peoples, who are seldom consulted on the matter, take a back seat to
an overriding ?national interest?, or to market-driven business
objectives aiming at developing new economic activities, maximizing
productivity and profits. For a long time, multilateral financing
agencies involved in the planning and execution of such projects
appeared to go along with this approach. Hence, the social and
environmental concerns expressed by many people, including indigenous
communities, have not been given the necessary attention.?
http://hdr.undp.org/docs/publications/background_papers/2004/HDR2004_Rodolfo_Stavenhagen.pdf
Yanomami and Nearby Tribes
==========================
?Current conflicts, for example, in Mato Grosso do Sul involving
Kiowa claims to land currently occupied by farming interests and in
Roraima involving Macuxi and Wapixana Indians whose federally
conferred demarcation rights are being contested by local government
interests, reveal the persistence of fundamental incompatibilities
between the state and indigenous interests, and the seemingly
intractable issue of how one sovereignty (that of the state) can
tolerate the (limited?) sovereignty of sub-sets (Indian groups).?
?The specifically regional aspect of Indian policy implementation has had
implications for similarly positioned non-Indian Amazonians, among the most
visible of which is the Rubber Tappers? Union whose founding leader, Chico
Mendes, was assassinated in 1988. Although the emergence of these new
political forces has in crucial respects been a complement to Indian efforts to
gain legal recognition of their rights, the ethnic/racial aspect has
been subsumed under a label that defines the actors not in terms of
their origins, but in terms of their livelihoods? relationships to the
natural environment, that is as generic Forest Peoples.
This disavowal of the centrality of race/ethnicity is partially a
byproduct of a recasting by modern environmentalists of traditional
human
ecological views of the society/nature equation in Amazonia such that there is
now a set of powerful arguments to the effect that social justice and
environmental conservation are intimately linked, but the perception that Indians
and other traditional Amazonian societies are united in their
interests is one that is held by external organizations (such as NGOs)
not by the actors themselves?
http://www2.sas.ac.uk/ilas/indigenism.pdf
?To understand the delicate situation of the Yanomami=s human rights,
it is important to recall relatively recent phenomena that have
resulted in quantitatively significant loss of lives. The years
between 1974 and 1976 saw the start of construction work on the
Northern Perimeter Highway built mostly for the hauling of minerals.
By the time it had covered a distance of 225 kilometers in Yanomami
territory--and because the construction company workers had not been
vaccinated (nor had vaccines been provided for the natives there)--the
Yanomami population of thirteen villages along the first several
kilometers of construction was besieged by epidemics that resulted in
the death of one out of every four Indians. At the same time, the
incidence of conflicts between immigrants and indigenous escalated,
resulting in untold numbers of deaths.
66.
The successive discoveries of valuable minerals and attempts at
exploitation--in particular, by "garimpeiros" (small-scale prospectors
of gold and precious minerals) who were in turn financed, supplied and
given political support by well-endowed groups which also had
political clout in the region--brought in their wake new diseases,
including malaria, tuberculosis, smallpox and other germs against
which the natives had not developed any genetic defenses. In 1976, the
Ministry of the Interior ordered the miners to be evicted. It is
estimated that 15% of the Yanomami population (i.e., some 1,500 of
them) died in that period as a result of diseases introduced by the
miners. One of those newly arrived scourges--malaria--is found in 40%
of the population today.? Much more on this page:
http://www.cidh.org/countryrep/brazil-eng/Chaper%206-1.htm
?The Yanomami, a hunting and horticultural people, do not have their
lands demarcated, as was formerly thought, Dr. Chernela says, and are
living inside a "biosphere reserve " with other tribes, all of whom
will be vying for the same territory. Without prompt assistance, the
Yanomami could lose out because they are geographically more remote,
less organized, and ill-equipped to compete in the elaborate
negotiating process that is already taking place. "They'll get less
land than any of the others and since they're semi-nomadic, they need
more," Chernela maintains.?
?In Brazil, Dr. Chernela points to the alleged sexual abuse of
Yanomami women living near military installations that have been
established on Yanomami territory. Official complaints by the Yanomami
of Brazil about the growing use of their land for military bases and
the sexual abuses have been ignored.?
http://www.aaanet.org/press/pryano1212.htm
?The Yanomami estimate approximately 2,000 wildcat gold prospectors
illegally operating within their territories. FUNAI is aware of this,
and, in media interviews, acknowledges the presence of "between 400
and 1000 illegal miners operating within Yanomami territories." These
intruders have long been recognized as sources of disease and social
destruction. In October of 2000, the deaths of four Yanomami and one
miner were linked to clashes with miners. In response to that tragedy
a petition to FUNAI President Glenio da Costa Alvares, and signed by
78 Yanomami, demanded the immediate removal of miners.?
http://www.aaanet.org/committees/cfhr/rptyano10.htm
?In responding to initial reports of the massacre of Yanomami Indians
by goldminers in August, 1993, Brazilian Attorney General Arisitides
Junqueira charged "the multiplicity of homicides of a determined
ethnicity is, without doubt, genocide." Revolted, he vowed to
undertake a rigorous investigation to prosecute those responsible.
Others concurred in Junqueira's assessment but doubted the Brazilian
government's capability or very commitment to protect the rights of
its indigenous peoples. Representatives of twenty-five American human
rights and environmental groups addressed a letter to Brazilan
President Itamar Franco expressing dismay over the massacre and
calling for justice for the Yanomami. The president of the Brazilian
chapter of Amnesty International, Carlos Alberto Idoeta, condemned the
"silent genocide" of Brazil's Indians whose "criminals count on the
tolerance if not the complicity of the State." Protests were held in
Rio de Janeiro, Geneva, London, New York, Washington and Paris.?
http://www.ciaonet.org/wps/gas01/
?It is sad to see how the greed of Chagnon and others have
destroyed the Yanomami. What once was a nation with their own beliefs
and practices, slowly has become in a way Americanized. Anthropoligist
and scientists are suppossed to preserve and not destroy. It makes you
wonder how this is so much the same as when other cultures, Mexicans,
Koreans, etc... when moving to America, sort of lose their culture.
They are so involved in the American way of life that they tend to
lose their own culture and beliefs. We tend to see this more in the
newer generations, rather than in the older generations.?
http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/read20.htm
?Relations between the Xilixana and miners have been far less cordial.
The miners have, at best, asked for food in exchange for Western
goods, or hired Yanomami men as labourers. At worst, they used
Yanomami women as prostitutes, brought diseases and contaminated the
Mucajai River with mercury. At times, these interactions led to
bloodshed, as the Yanomami seemed to live up to their fierce
reputations via revenge killings, although Peters maintains that
Chagnon's description of a ''fierce people'' is appropriate only for
the 1900-80 period (p. 277).?
http://members.aol.com/archaeodog/darkness_in_el_dorado/documents/0512.htm
?As of 1987, the Calha Norte Plan, based on the principle of
territorial occupation based on military security precepts, sought to
reduce the large and continuous indigenous territories in an attempt
to exclude them from a security zone measuring 62 km from the borders;
and to emphasize the classification of indigenous into silvicola
(forest people) and "acculturated" categories, with different rights
specified for each category. The State's obligations with respect to
the acculturated class either disappeared or were sharply reduced.?
http://www.cidh.org/countryrep/brazil-eng/Chaper%206%20.htm
?Omame (the creator) gave Urihi to the communities for them to live
here. That?s where we Indians were born. We want our Urihi to be
respected. The Yanomami communities know about your support and fight,
they know they have support for the defence of their land. They don?t
want the whites to finish them off. Whites brought disease into Urihi
and contaminated us, our blood, our lives. We already have natural
food so there is no need to destroy the forest and plant again. Koyori
was an important being/spirit who gave the community food to eat a
long time ago. Koyori is with us. We need the trees and fruits and
streams, and mountains full of wind, and rain and birds singing. We
need all of this alive. No one is telling me this, I am telling you
this. The earth is like a father because he looks for food.
Water is like a mother ? when you are thirsty she gives you water.
Urihi is like a brother, a true brother, which gives energy for us to
grow, our children to grow alongside trees and animals and fish. Rain
falls to cool the earth. It cleans us. We have roots. Our roots are
buried there in our earth. Our roots are very old but never dead ? for
this reason we have forest and good earth and stones (minerals), which
is what the white people want, but we won?t let them. Remember us, you
have force. Continue to pressurise, to talk, and so let the Yanomami
live.?
http://www.kindredspirit.co.uk/ARTICLES/5156_yanomami_brief.asp
?A few years later Ms Jagger petitioned the Brazilian Federation
Courts to demarcate and protect the lands of the Guarani peoples of
Brazil, and in 1994, participated in a similar effort to protect the
Yanomami people of Northern Brazil from invasions of their lands by
gold miners who polluted the water, causing many deaths among this
ancient tribe. The Yanomami are often threatened by rich and
unscrupulous land-owners who covet their land.?
http://www.harrywalker.com/speakers_template.cfm?Spea_ID=813
" DEMARCATION OF YANOMAMI AREA IS HOMOLOGATED BUT
GOLD PROSPECTORS REMAIN IN IT AS INVADERS
At last it happend. On May 25th, the Brazilian presidente, Fernando Collor
de Mello, homologated the demarcation of the territory of the Yanomami Indians.
Through this act, the presidente of the Republic confirms the demarcation of a
9.6 million-hectare land area traditionally occupied by that people.
The homologation is taking concrete form twenty-four years after the first
proposal for the demarcation of the area was submitted to the government. Since
then, several other proposals were presented, but they never produced any
practical results, owing mainly to the location of the territory in question,
on the border between Brazil and Venezuela, and to the mineral potential of the
region. These two factors led military, political and economic sectors to join
efforts against the demarcation, which in practice postponed it for so many
years, jeopardizing the chances of survival of the Yanomami Indians."
http://www.native-net.org/archive/nl/9206/0030.html
Kayapó and Nearby Tribes
========================
?In an effort to colonize Indian territories in the early 1980s,
the Brazilian government sent in planes filled with cowboys -- many of
German descent -- to settle remote areas. Over the years, Brazilian
Indians, Brazilians and visiting missionaries have all fallen victim
to bloody deaths related to these land struggles. Tribes have also
suffered mass deaths by disease. Indigenous peoples are generally
extremely healthy, but their immune system is unable to defend against
many Western diseases. In recent decades, the government has stopped
trying to modernize indigenous people, and although this has helped
tribes to flourish, violent conflict is still a problem.?
?Between 2003 and 2004, 10,000 square miles of the Amazon, an area the
size of Massachusetts, were cleared away -- and by 2005, at least
another 5,000 square miles were lost.
Competition for good hunting grounds can be fierce, and there is often
warfare between neighboring groups over territorial rights. Another
major source of conflict for Brazilian Indians is exploitation of the
Amazon?s resources by outsiders, including logging and mining
operations and ranchers. Some scientists argue that although in the
short term, huge amounts of money can be made from exploiting the
Amazon, these operations are not sustainable in the long run. Rain
forest soil is very poor for growing crops and turns to virtual desert
within five years of losing its protective canopy of trees. Thus as
the rain forest is slowly destroyed, so may be the many Brazilian
Indian tribes, along with their diverse cultures, beliefs, rituals,
languages, and unique understanding of the undiscovered flora and
fauna of the rain forests.?
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/brazil501/brazil501_additional.html
?The largest (and wealthiest) of villages is Gorotire
- one of the world's largest gold mines located here
- in 1982 Brazilian gold miners invaded Kayapo territory by the thousands
- Gorotire managed to gain control of mining concessions
?Some of the media accounts reported that some Kayapo leaders were
using the income from these contracts to maintain lavish personal life
styles in Brazilian towns far from their home villages, complete with
town houses, Brazilian servants and bodyguards, cars, airplanes,
drinking binges, Brazilian mistresses and prostitutes. The biased
impression conveyed by the stories of Kayapo "wealth" based on the
life-styles of a few Kayapo leaders with houses in Brazilian towns was
magnified by omission of any description of the poverty of the 99% of
the Kayapo population who remained in the villages. Some of these
reports included Payakan among the Kayapo leaders supporting an urban
life style with money from logging contracts, in direct contradiction
of his symbolic persona as an eco-warrior.?
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/Anthro/Anth210/kayapo.htm
?How is Kayapo culture at risk?
? Pollution: Outside the boundaries of the territory, acres of soybean
and cattle characterize Brazil?s landscape. The ecological stress from
these practices is negatively affecting life for the Kayapo and
others. Pollution is traveling from the headwaters of the Xingu
downriver to the reserve, contaminating water supplies and food
resources.
? Land Invasion: Parts of the east bank of the Middle Xingu called
Kapôtnhinore are being illegally invaded and sold. Over the last two
years ranchers and others have sought out the land. Hostile
relationships have formed, creating a dangerous and volatile
environment and also blocking river travel.
? Hydroelectric Dams: The Brazilian government has revived a set of
plans that will establish dams along the Xingu River. The proposed
project would displace Kayapo from their homes, cause a loss of
sustenance for those living downstream, disturb fish populations, and
damage terrestrial ecosystems.
14 years later the government has reopened the book on the Xingu. A
second round of proposals are being reviewed and the Kayapo plan a
second round of defense.
? Electronorte, an electrical utilities company owned by the state, is
spearheading this initiative to create the world?s third largest dam.4
The first dam, the Belo Monte, will not be able to operate during the
four-month long dry season, making the system inefficient and
dependent on the construction of additional dams.
? A canal system has also been proposed that would be the largest
canal project since the Panama Canal.
? Funding for the proposal comes from Electronorte and private vendors
like the Brazilian National Developmental Bank.
? There will be no compensation to the people who would be displaced or harmed.5
http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/goodale.html
?Their campaign succeeded in halting a major, World Bank-financed
hydroelectric project and blocking a government plan to dump
radioactive waste in the Amazon. They regained lands taken by mining
companies and the Brazilian government -- and they convinced the
government to officially ratify and demarcate their reserves.
Today the 5,000 Kayapó Indians control, legally and physically, a
continuous block of the Amazonian forest totaling 28.4 million acres
(11.5 million hectares) -- by far the planet's largest block of
tropical forest protected by a single indigenous group. The related
Panará group controls an adjacent 1.2-million-acre (500,000-hectare)
area.?
http://www.conservation.org/xp/frontlines/people/parkprofile24-5.xml
?Uncomfortable with news reports about the high number of deaths of
Indians during 2005, most of which were due to the very slow process
of recognising indigenous lands and which itself is a consequence of
the pressure on and violent acts committed against the indigenous
population by invaders of all sorts, the President of FUNAI, Mércio
Gomes, declared to the press agency Reuters on 12 January 2006, that
the indigenous peoples of Brazil have too much land 'Until now, there
have been no limits to their claims for land, but we are reaching a
point where the Supreme Court will have to define a limit.'
COIAB restates publicly that the deaths of Indians in Brazil, whether
due to violence carried out by the invaders of indigenous lands or due
to the incapacity of defining and implementing efficient public
polices of high quality for indigenous peoples in the area of health,
education and sustainability, are the responsibility of the current
government which in the last few years of its term of office has
totally forgotten the commitments made in front of indigenous leaders
and their representative bodies during the last 20 years. It was only
during the year 2005 that this government opened up to dialogue with
the indigenous movement, after much pressure from indigenous people
and their organisations, which had always been ignored and
disrespected, particularly by the president of the government's Indian
affairs department.?
http://www.survival-international.org/related_material.php?id=371
?Land conflicts involving indigenous people have multiplied in Brazil
over the last few months, generating greater tension and showing once
again that the country's roughly 400,000 indigenous people still have
a long way to go to win respect for their rights.
Hundreds of Tupinambá and Pataxó Indians occupied eight plots of land
last week in Itajú de Colonia, in the southern part of the
northeastern Brazilian state of Bahía, in an attempt to recover
property that they claim as their own, but which was rewarded to
landowners in judicial decisions.
The indigenous people, who complained that they had been the victims
of attacks, threatened to destroy power lines in their bid to reclaim
their land.
Slightly farther to the south, in the state of Espíritu Santo, around
a dozen Indians were injured two weeks ago in a police operation that
destroyed two villages on land that is the focus of a legal dispute
with the Aracruz cellulose company.
Similar incidents have been seen in states ranging from the
northernmost stretches of Brazil's Amazon jungle region to the
southern state of Santa Catarina, where eight members of the Kaingang
indigenous community were thrown into jail in December, accused of
property invasion and aggression on a rural estate.?
http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=13217
Mapuche
=======
?Important as they have been, government reform initiatives are
insufficient to mitigate the negative effects of economic development
schemes on Mapuche communities. During the 1990s Mapuche lands were
profoundly affected by the expansion of investment in forestry,
hydroelectric projects, and road construction. By the year 2000, an
estimated 1.5 million hectares in ancestral Mapuche territory had been
planted with commercial pine and eucalyptus. Two Chilean companies
alone, Mininco and Arauco, accrued more than one million hectares of
exotic trees, many of its plantations encircling Mapuche communities.
Community members fiercely opposed encroachment by the forestry
companies. They complained that the pine tree farms dried up their
water sources, eroded the soil, and blocked the light needed to
sustain the rich undergrowth of the native woods, on which Mapuche
still rely for medicinal and ritual needs. At the same time, the
Mapuche found only limited employment with the companies. For more
than a decade, anger at what they considered the plunder of their
livelihood exploded in public protests, occupations of forestry land,
road blocks, and burning of trees, forestry vehicles, and equipment.
In response, the forestry companies denounced Mapuche leaders in the
courts and invested in armed guards to protect their plantations and
installations. Some communities reached agreements with government
authorities to purchase forestry land through CONADI, regulate water
rights, and institute bilingual education programs. However, in many
areas the relationship between the communities and the forestry
companies and government continued to deteriorate. These conflicts
provide the backdrop to the prosecutions discussed in this report.?
?Scores of Mapuche faced prosecution during the Frei government on
charges like arson, theft, land grabbing, kidnapping, or wounding. In
addition, public officials opened three separate proceedings under the
Law of State Security (LSE).15 Proceedings under this law are
intended to be faster than ordinary criminal prosecutions.
The minister of the interior or an intendente (regional local
government official) initiates the prosecution, and an appeals court
judge conducts the investigation and trial under special rules that
apply to military courts in peacetime. These rules set fixed time
limits for each stage of the trial, give judges greater discretion in
evaluating evidence, and limit rights of appeal. Instead of using the
LSE, the Lagos government has opted to prosecute those it sees as the
ringleaders of the violent actions on terrorist charges.
In a March 2002 senate debate, the senator for the Araucanía, Alberto
Espina, urged that violent Mapuche groups be combated ?[w]ith the full
rigor of the law, since their conduct has created a state of
insecurity and fear that is incompatible with the full functioning of
the rule of law.?16 Led by Espina, a specialized Senate committee met
for more than a year to discuss the public security aspect of the
Mapuche conflict. The result was a 160-page report issued on July 9,
2003. Fifteen prominent landowners whose properties had suffered
repeated attacks testified to the committee, but only one Mapuche
representative was invited. Rather than probe the roots of the
conflict and examine strategies for dealing with it, in essence the
report was a vehicle for the grievances of the landowners.?
http://hrw.org/reports/2004/chile1004/
?To the Mapuche Indians in southern Argentina, the Italian clothing
manufacturer Benetton is the newest conquistador in 10,000 years of
land struggles in Patagonia. Today Benetton is the largest landholder
in Argentina, owning 900,000 hectares (2.2 million acres) in the
resource-rich region of Patagonia. With 9% of Patagonia's most
cultivatable land, their holdings amount to 40 times the size of the
capital city of Buenos Aires, the second largest city in Latin
America.
"Here they fenced off all that they wanted. If it was a pretty valley,
for that reason they appropriated it, if it was beautiful pampas, they
closed it out. They left us among the stones, among the worst fields"
says a Mapuche farmer Rogelio Fermín.?
http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=9189
"ENDESA's tactics undermine the possibility of considering the
Pehuenches' interests as a community. ENDESA started building houses
for the Pehuenche in El Barco, in the process employing many of the
young Pehuenches who will later live in them. Before a decision has
been reached on the suitability or otherwise of the land swap, the
issue of community lands is muddied as it is de facto bound up with
that of employment, pre-emptively enticing elements within the
communities to favour whatever deal is then on offer. Pangue, the
first of the Biobío hydro-dams was funded to the tune of $153 million
by the private finance arm of the World Bank. In a rare mea culpa by
the Bank, its former head James Wolfensohn acknowledged that ENDESA
"appears to have taken a less than constructive approach to its
environmental and social obligations."
The Collaqui community remains, for all this, typical enough of most
of the rural Mapuche communities - Lofs - in the heartland of
temperate, south-central Chile. Comprising one or two extended
families, its residents inhabit a series of tiny farmsteads scattered
amidst rolling fields. Threatened by infrastructural projects and the
vast forestry monocultures now endemic throughout their territory,
many such rural Mapuche households are struggling to survive, let
alone maintain their way of life on a few meagre hectares apiece.
Scenes such as those on the hills at Ralco have become more common and
Mapuches regularly invade the forestry estates to stage land
occupations, or tomas. They haven't stopped there. In the district of
Lumako, in December 1997, Mapuches from the 'Coordinadora'
organisation ignited two lorries belonging to the Arauco forestry
company, the first of an ongoing wave of direct attacks on the
forestry industry in the region.
In the winter of '99, for example, in Collipulli town in the upper
Biobío, 50 armed Mapuches destroyed two Mininco office buildings and a
warehouse with molotov cocktails and torched two Mininco trucks. A
general atmosphere of tension now grips the countryside in many areas.
Forestry plantations are guarded by private security and carabiñeros,
and their trucks travel with police escort to avoid ambush."
http://www.eco-action.org/dod/no10/mapuche.htm
Shuar, Achuar and Zapara
========================
?On the other hand, the indigenous Shuar, Achuar and Zapara peoples of
Ecuador express their absolute rejection to oil development in their
territories. In a press conference, the Inter federation committee,
by the different indigenous organizations Ficsh, Finae, Fipse, joined
by the indigenous zápara organization Onzae, stated to the national
public opinion their clear opposition to the settling of the U.S. oil
company Burlington, in blocks 23 and 24.
These organizations' presidents stated that they do not want an
environmental and social disaster in the Ecuadorian northeast will
happen again in the centre and south Ecuadorian Amazon, in Pastaza and
Morona Santiago provinces, where their communities are settled.?
http://www.firstpeoples.org/updates/ecuador.htm
?The Superior Justice Court of the northern city of Nueva Loja, on the
Colombian border, accepted May 14 a lawsuit against the US
transnational oil company Texaco. Representatives of 30,000 indigenous
people and campesinos affected by oil exploration and extraction in
the northeastern provinces of Sucumbíos and Orellana have been working
on the case for almost a decade.?
http://www.lapress.org/article.asp?IssCode=&lanCode=1&artCode=3375
Additional Information
======================
U?wa
?For the U'wa people of the Colombian Amazon, Oil is the blood of the
earth. Once it is extracted they say the earth will dry up and become
angry: the people will die.
So when the US-based Occidental Petroleum began to explore for oil in
their territory the U'wa resisted what they saw as an attack on their
sacred lands. Several times they have forced Occidental to stop
drilling. And they're not alone. From the Niger delta in Nigeria to
the Orinoco delta in Venezuela, people are beginning to look for
alternatives to oil development.?
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JQP/is_2001_June/ai_75833161
In General
==========
Rights of Indigenous Peoples
http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss14/williams.shtml#Heading230
?Pressure on indigenous lands is intense. Indigenous peoples? rights
are denied by forestry, mining, oil and gas, dam-building and
agribusiness interests, who seek unimpeded access to natural
resources. Conservation schemes have also often led to the forced
resettlement of indigenous peoples.
Government sponsored colonisation has historically been a major cause
of dispossession but has lessened in recent years owing to
international campaigns against such programmes and greater awareness
of the rights of indigenous peoples and the value of tropical forests.
Notwithstanding, pressure on indigenous lands from landless peasants
and small-scale miners remains a major threat to indigenous security.
Indigenous resistance to dispossession has often been met with
violence and human rights abuse.
Detailed treatment of these wider issues is outside the scope of this
study, but any attempt to secure indigenous peoples? lands must be
developed taking into account the wider context in which indigenous
peoples find themselves.?
http://www.forestpeoples.org/documents/law_hr/fao_land_tenure_report_dec01_eng.pdf
http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/CHAPIN01.ART
http://www.native-net.org/archive/nl/9512/0196.html
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Sincerely, Crabcakes
Search Terms
=============
Yanomami subjugation
Kayapó subjugation
Kayapó + loss of entitlements
Yanomami peoples + loss of entitlements |
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