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Q: Wound healing ( Answered 5 out of 5 stars,   1 Comment )
Question  
Subject: Wound healing
Category: Science > Biology
Asked by: wayworn-ga
List Price: $200.00
Posted: 29 Mar 2006 13:25 PST
Expires: 28 Apr 2006 14:25 PDT
Question ID: 713295
Is cutaneous wound healing slower in humans than in chimpanzees? What is the
available evidence? Do you know it from direct observation,or from
scientific literature? Experimental or clinical evidence?
 What is the difference in rate proportion, 10%, 20% 50% slower? Which
phases are slower?

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 03 Apr 2006 10:02 PDT
a) It is widely known that cutaneous wound healing is slower in humans
thn in animals like mice, rats, rabbits, cats and dogs. I wish to know
about apes, chimps in particular. It seems to me from hearsay that
they are also faster than us, but I'm looking for some authoritative
source. I am neither a vet nor a medical doctor; my interest is purely
theoretical. I included details like phases(wound closure,
epithelilization etc) and rate proportions in the question but I can
be happy with less than that. Accessible sound sources could suffice.
b) I meant, of course, young healthy adult (YHA) humans as compared to
YHA chimps (or other apes, but info on chimps is ideal and may be
easier to find); not interested in effects of age. Thank you very
much.

Request for Question Clarification by crabcakes-ga on 03 Apr 2006 21:35 PDT
Hello Wayworn,

  I have been searching for hours, and have found precious little
about your topic. I have found several articles alluding to healing
chimpanzee skin, but you state it is well known that chimpanzee wounds
heal faster. Where have you read this?

  The articles I have found only allude to this fact - I have been
unable to locate much scientific proof, even searching Google Scholar.

  These are most of the search terms I have used:

chimpanzee model + skin healing + humans
regeneration + extracellular matrix + chimpanzees + wound
wound healing + primates
regeneration + wound repair  + chimpanzees
Pongidae + wound healing
Pan troglodytes + wound healing
Integumentary system + chimpanzee
epidermal cells + primates
epidermal cells + chimpanzees
neoplastic cells + chimpanzees

 You are offering a nice fee for the information you are seeking, and
I'd like to provide you with just that. Could you give me a few more
clues as to exactly what you are seeking?

Regards, Crabcakes

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 04 Apr 2006 12:37 PDT
Dear Crabcakes, I was just writing a long letter to you, but for some
reason it suddenly vanished from my machine here. Maybe it was because
of its length, maybe it was because of the long time it took me,
because of interruptions to look after my affairs. (This is the first
time I ask Google a question). I will write it again later. Thank you
very much for your efforts. Please wait. Best regards, Wayworn-ga

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 04 Apr 2006 16:05 PDT
Dear Crabcakes,
                Thank you very much again for your efforts. I know my
answer is hard to find. Let's see if I can be of any help to you.
First a minor correction on your reading of my initial Clarification.
My "widely known" referred only to those non-primate animals I
mentioned (mice, rats etc). As to chimps, it is not widely known. I
got a piece of info from two quality documentary TV films and a word
from a Vet professor. Most unfortunately - I regret it! - I did not
get any detail about the films. They may have been BBC or NATGEO or
some other similarly good production. In both a chimp was under
surgery and the Vet/Doctor said that the surgical wound would heal
very fast indeed. They were emphatic about that. In one of the films
the surgery was a tooth extraction (a canine was pulled out) and in
the other it was a chest surgery.

 Now, what exactly do I wish? When you get a skin cut of any sort, it
will take some time for you to go from bleeding to scar formation. I
wish to know if that time - the healing rate - goes faster in chimps
than in humans.

 Why do I need it? As I said before, it is a purely theoretical
interest. I am reading scientific literature on Human Evolution, so
all differences and similaritites between us and our closest living
relative, the chimp, are important to me. I have found a lot about
many items like teeth, jaws, muscles, bones, locomotion, social life
and so on. However, I seem to be unable to find anything about wound
healing rate. It is important because you can make inferences about
our evolutionary past from the difference if is real, as I guess it
is, like the protected life (from wounds) our ancestors (not recent,
far back in time) must have had, etc.

  Most of your search terms are ok. Maybe you should try some specific
publications on primates. Maybe someting like Primate Newsletter from
Primate centers. Maybe surgery will help. Repair is ok, regenaration
is unlikely to take you there, wound healing rate is THE concept, but
healing time or time course can help. Maybe some authors. Maybe books
on Wound Healing, searching for chimps in them. W.H. is a tricky
search. One of the reasons is the enormous literature on treatments,
and I'm not at all interested in treatments, only in the rate as
compared to humans. Please feel entirely free to write to me again. It
is perfectly understandable that you find it hard. It will be ok if
you can't find it but it will be great if you do. The fee I offered, I
think, is highest possible from Google policies. I could easily afford
twice as much. Tell me if I am wrong and how to offer more, it will be
well deserved if you help me. Maybe wound + healing + chimp + human +
rate + skin or cutaneous, minus treatments, in the text, not
allintitle.

                           Thank you very much indeed and GOOD LUCK!
                                             
                                                  Kind regards, Wayworn

Request for Question Clarification by crabcakes-ga on 04 Apr 2006 17:06 PDT
Hi Wayworn,

   I appreciate your comments. I have searched using numerous other
terms. Skin regeneration was one I used because there are so many
intrinsic factors involved in skin regeneration (read epidermal
healing).

  I have quite a bit actually, but no hard data. Later this evening (I
have a class to teach!), I will post what I have and you may critique
it. Then I will work from there.

  "model" is a word used in research, and it was quite helpful actually!


I'll post in a few more hours! Regards, Crabcakes

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 05 Apr 2006 06:08 PDT
Dear Crabcakes,
                   I don't have any urgency, you can take your time.
Yes, a great deal of scientific info will be found with "WH models",
but I fear it will be lots of mice, rats, pigs etc in connection with
experimental treatments. It will be just great if you can find chimps
amidst all that stuff, and then the comparison I am looking for. I
think the most important author is a scientist named Montagna who has
published many papers on primate skin. However, the best approximation
I could find in his writings to what I need was his assertion that
human skin is so fragile that it is as though it had been designed to
be covered by clothing. It is not enough of course because it just
means that it can easily be hurt because of its hairlessness, but
doesn't have any bearing on its ability to recover. Yet I have not
been able to use search tools through his books and papers. Chances
are you can do it. Thank you again. Kind regards, Wayworn

Request for Question Clarification by crabcakes-ga on 05 Apr 2006 10:46 PDT
Hi Wayworn,

   Thank you for your patience. I'm afraid I'm finding this research
so interesting, it's slowing me down! (  :-)  )

Some of the information I had already gathered was either authored,
referenced from, or edited by Montagna! I'm really digging, and
decided to hold off posting so I can do a better editing job!

I will post tonight or tomorrow morning. I truly appreciate your
patience, and now your interest in this topic! I am finding that many
things have the ability to affect skin healing; hair, sweat, skin fat,
integrins, hormones, diet, etc. Fascinating!

Regards, Crabcakes

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 05 Apr 2006 12:39 PDT
Even stress, Crabcakes, can affect wound healing, according to very
recent research, not to mention age. And embryos will heal without a
scar, and so on and on. It is nice to know that you are enjoying it,
but please don't let yourself be lured away from the question. You
don't have to thank me for my patience; there is really no hurry. The
fact that I reply quicky does not mean urgency, it is just a habit of
answering emails and calls as I get them. And, believe me, I am indeed
concerned about the number of hours you are dedicating to my question;
after all it is a job for you. Thank you very much, Wayworn

Request for Question Clarification by crabcakes-ga on 05 Apr 2006 23:35 PDT
Hello Wayworn,

      I'm going to post what I have found in the "Request for
Clarification" section, rather than the "Answer" section, as I am
unable to locate exactly what you are seeking.

  I've gathered numerous articles on various topics - some of which
have an effect on how wounds heal in chimpanzees. I'm sorry I was
unable to locate the exact answer. Perhaps you will enjoy what I have
found, irrespective of the fact that I have missed the mark!

============================

   If this is the Montagna to which you refer, he is also interested
in researching Bigfoot/Sasquach!

"While here the BBC filmed Roger Patterson at HQ, and then shot
several hours of a discussion between Dr. John Napier and the writer
(Ivan Sanderson) with visuals in the form of plaster casts of the
footprints of Bigfoot. Later, they ran an hour on Dr. Joe Wraight in
Washington, D. C., then flew to Denver to interview Professor George
A. Agogino; then on to Dr. Montagna, Head of the Oregon Primate
Center; and ended up with interviews with several persons, of all ages
and walks of life, on the Coast who had told Roger that they had
encountered Bigfoot at close range. It will take two to three months
to edit this film but it will then be aired in Europe, and LIFE
INTERNATIONAL have opted to publish an article on the story
simultaneously."
http://americanbigfootsocietyclearinghouse.blogspot.com/2006_02_03_americanbigfootsocietyclearinghouse_archive.html


   ?Jablonski, now chairman of the anthropology department at the
California Academy of Sciences, begins by assuming that our earliest
ancestors had fair skin just like chimpanzees, our closest biological
relatives. Between 4.5 million and 2 million years ago, early humans
moved from the rain forest and onto the East African savanna. Once on
the savanna, they not only had to cope with more exposure to the sun,
but they also had to work harder to gather food. Mammalian brains are
particularly vulnerable to overheating: A change of only five or six
degrees can cause a heatstroke. So our ancestors had to develop a
better cooling system.

The answer was sweat, which dissipates heat through evaporation. Early
humans probably had few sweat glands, like chimpanzees, and those were
mainly located on the palms of their hands and the bottoms of their
feet. Occasionally, however, individuals were born with more glands
than usual. The more they could sweat, the longer they could forage
before the heat forced them back into the shade. The more they could
forage, the better their chances of having healthy offspring and of
passing on their sweat glands to future generations.

A million years of natural selection later, each human has about 2
million sweat glands spread across his or her body. Human skin, being
less hairy than chimpanzee skin, "dries much quicker," says Adrienne
Zihlman, an anthropologist at the University of California at Santa
Cruz. "Just think how after a bath it takes much longer for wet hair
to dry."

?Hairless skin, however, is particularly vulnerable to damage from
sunlight. Scientists long assumed that humans evolved melanin, the
main determinant of skin color, to absorb or disperse ultraviolet
light. But what is it about ultraviolet light that melanin protects
against? Some researchers pointed to the threat of skin cancer. But
cancer usually develops late in life, after a person has already
reproduced. Others suggested that sunburned nipples would have
hampered breast-feeding. But a slight tan is enough to protect mothers
against that problem.?
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/text_pop/l_073_04.html


   ?Wound healing studies have been performed on a wide variety of
species, and although differences in rates of healing have been
generally acknowledged the dogma has developed that wound healing is a
more or less homogeneous process across species lines. Recently,
however, differences in wound healing have been discovered even in
closely related animals. Literature and clinical impression indicate
that the cat seems to be predisposed to certain cutaneous wound
healing problems that are seen less frequently in the dog. Recent
investigations have examined differences in wound healing between the
dog and cat, with the goal of improving the clinical outcome of wound
healing problems in the cat. Testing methods and clinical applications
of findings are presented.?
http://www.iknowledgenow.com/search.cfm?keywordlist=Dogs


   ?On at least two occasions he is factually incorrect. For example
on 'skin-bonded fat deposits' Moore dismisses the table as wrong,
suggesting that our fat deposits are like other primates. Montagna
(1985:p14) wrote "...human skin acquired a hypodermal fatty layer
(panniculus adiposus) which is considerably thicker than that found in
other primates, or mammals for that matter." And Moore's claim that
hymen are only found 'only in fin whales' among the aquatics is
directly contradicted by Fichtelius (1991).?

?William Montagna, arguably the world's leading expert in mammalian
skin,  writing in the Journal of Human Evolution in 1985 completely
contradicts Moore's claim. He writes "Together with the loss of a
furry cover, human skin acquired a hypodermal fatty layer (panniculus
adiposus) which is considerably thicker than that found in other
primates, or mammals for that matter." (Montagna 1985:p14).
It seems that here it is Moore, not the infamous AAT leaflet, which is
just plain wrong.?
http://www.riverapes.com/AAH/Arguments/JimMoore/Characteristics.htm


   ?A subterminal satellite located adjacent to telomeres in
chimpanzees is absent from the human genome
Nicola J. Royle1, 2, Duncan M. Baird1 & Alec J. Jeffreys1
  1Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, University Road,
Leicester LE1 7RH, United Kingdom
One of the significant unresolved differences between the karyotypes
of humans and African apes is the presence of positively staining
G?bands at the ends of many chromosome arms in the chimpanzee and
gorilla but absent from human chromosomes. Using a telomere anchored
PCR strategy, we have isolated DNA from a subterminal satellite,
composed of a 32 basepair A?T rich repeat, from the chimpanzee genome
that hybridizes to all the additional terminal bands and at two
interstitial sites. The satellite is more abundant in gorillas and is
not detected in humans or orang?utans. Furthermore, there is no
similarity between other chimpanzee telomere?junction clones and human
subterminal sequences, and therefore the organization of sequences
adjacent to telomeres is very different between these closely related
primates.?
http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v6/n1/abs/ng0194-52.html;jsessionid=57771F350E263B6C53E5C73C3EAC4633


   ?Sequences from higher primates orthologous to the human Xp/Yp
telomere junction region reveal gross rearrangements and high levels
of divergence?
?This divergence is similar to that observed between the human Xp/Yp
telomere-adjacent haplotypes. The high sequence divergence and
evidence of gross rearrangements indicate that the Xp/Yp telomeric
region has evolved faster than the rest of the genome.?

?These data suggest an ancestral structure for the Xp/Yp telomere
junction region of the higher primates (Fig. 5 ). They also suggest
that the terminal sequences of the great ape chromosomes are
relatively transient, such that subterminal sequence organisation is
unique to a lineage. This dynamism may reflect the ability of
telomerase to heal broken chromosomes, resulting in the truncation of
the chromosome and repositioning of the telomere, as seen for example
in the human and possibly the orang-utan orL structure. However, the
presence of subterminal satellite and structures other than a telomere
in the chimpanzee and the gorilla indicates that the dynamics of
subterminal sequences have also influenced the relative position of
the Xp/Yp telomere.?
http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/6/13/2291#top



   ?Comparison of mammalian genomes revealed evolutionary conservation
of the VDRE in a short interspersed nuclear element or SINE in the
CAMP promoter of primates that was absent in the mouse, rat, and
canine genomes. Our findings reveal a novel activity of
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and the VDR in regulation of primate innate
immunity.? Gombart, A. F., Borregaard, N., Koeffler, H. P. Human
cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) gene is a direct target of
the vitamin D receptor and is strongly up-regulated in myeloid cells
by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin
D3. FASEB J. 19, 1067?1077 (2005)?

?We showed that induction occurs in the cells of the bone marrow.
Moreover, we discovered that the induction of CAMP by vitamin D3 does
not occur in mice. In fact, it appears that this mechanism is
conserved in primates (humans and chimpanzees) and not in other
mammals as suggested by the absence of the VDRE in the murine, rat,
and canine CAMP promoters. The VDRE is present in a SINE
element of the Alu-Sx subfamily. These elements can retrotranspose
from a progenitor element to other locations in the genome during
evolution. It would appear that this event occurred in a primate
progenitor.

Whether this element is conserved in all primates (other than humans
and chimpanzees), as well as in New World and Old World monkeys, has
not been determined?

?Boosting CAMP/hCAP18 levels potentially could protect against this
condition after surgery and speed wound healing.?
http://www.biochem.wisc.edu/courses/biochem911/pdfs/Gombart_et_al.pdf


   ?Cutaneous wound healing is a complex process encompassing a number
of overlapping events that include leukocyte recruitment, matrix
deposition, epithelialization, and ultimately resolution of
inflammation with the formation of a mature scar. Impaired age-related
wound healing states ? involving both acute wounds that fail to heal
and chronic ulcers ? are characterized by excessive leukocytosis and
subsequently enhanced proteolytic degradation of matrix constituents?

?Recent reports suggest that both gonadal androgens and adrenal sex
steroid precursors in primates may act not only through the AR but
also via the estrogen receptor. Our findings are in keeping with
gonadal androgens acting specifically through the AR to reduce local
tissue inflammation and modulate wound repair. Since TNF-? activates
NF-?B, which in turn induces gene expression of a plethora of
proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-? itself, we investigated the
activity of NF-?B in wound tissue nuclear extracts from control and
flutamide-treated male mice. EMSA showed NF-?B activity to be strongly
increased in day 3 wound tissue compared with normal skin; activation
was suppressed by flutamide treatment (Figure 6c). Such data suggest a
potential role for the AR in mediating the positive feedback loop that
exists between TNF-? and NF-?B activity.?
http://www.pubmedcentral.com/articlerender.fcgi?artid=151108


   ?The present study tested the effects of local injection of IL-1
and TNF soluble receptors on a periodontal wound-healing model in
nonhuman primates. In this model, periodontal lesions were developed
for 16 wk, followed by open flap surgery. Starting at the time of
surgery, groups of animals received localized injections of both
soluble cytokine receptors or else PBS three times per week for 3, 14,
or 35 days. Periodontal wound healing was analyzed for each group at
the end of the treatment regimen. Fourteen days after surgery, a
significant decrease was observed between the animals treated with
soluble receptors and the untreated group with respect to recruitment
of inflammatory cells in deep gingival connective tissue. Concurrent
apoptosis of inflammatory cells in those tissues increased
significantly in treated animals compared with untreated animals.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15322216&dopt=Abstract


   ?Animal Models:  Chimpanzees, other primates, guinea pigs, cats,   
  hamsters, mice, and rats have been successfully infected with human
biopsy  material.  Changes in the central nervous system are similar
in guinea pigs to those seen in man and involve vacuolization in the
neurons and astrocytes.
http://netvet.wustl.edu/species/guinea/gpmodel.txt


   ?It has been reported that the telomere length in peripheral blood
lymphocytes of the higher primates P. troglodytes (chimpanzee) and
Gorilla gorilla (gorilla) varies from 15 to 20 kb [21]. It was thus
claimed that the shorter telomeres of humans may be unique among
primates [22]. However, there are currently no data about replicative
aging and telomere biology in nonhuman primates.

Short telomeres limit the replicative capacity of all anthropoid
species, and elongation and maintenance of telomeres by hTERT were
accompanied by extension of the in vitro life span in all nonhuman
primate fibroblasts. Not only was hTERT able to interact with the
integral RNA component of other primates, including the lemur, it was
also able to interact with the other cofactors in primates needed for
recruiting to and acting on the end of telomeres. Given the large
scatter reported in telomere length and cultured life span among
different human donors, comparing the in vitro life span of single
fibroblast cultures to the life expectancy of each species is not
justified.?
http://www.swmed.edu/home_pages/cellbio/shay-wright/publications/telomerebiology.pdf



   ?The earliest members of the hominid lineage probably had a mostly
unpigmented or lightly pigmented integument covered with dark black
hair, similar to that of the modern chimpanzee. The evolution of a
naked, darkly pigmented integument occurred early in the evolution of
the genus Homo. A dark epidermis protected sweat glands from
UV-induced injury, thus insuring the integrity of somatic
thermoregulation. Of greater significance to individual reproductive
success was that highly melanized skin protected against UV-induced
photolysis of folate (Branda &Eaton, 1978, Science201, 625?626;
Jablonski, 1992, Proc. Australas. Soc. Hum. Biol.5,455?462, 1999, Med.
Hypotheses52, 581?582), a metabolite essential for normal development
of the embryonic neural tube (Bower & Stanley, 1989, The Medical
Journal of Australia150, 613?619; Medical Research Council Vitamin
Research Group, 1991, The Lancet338, 31?37) and spermatogenesis
(Cosentino et al., 1990, Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.87, 1431?1435;
Mathur et al., 1977, Fertility Sterility28, 1356?1360).

   As hominids migrated outside of the tropics, varying degrees of
depigmentation evolved in order to permit UVB-induced synthesis of
previtamin D3. The lighter color of female skin may be required to
permit synthesis of the relatively higher amounts of vitamin
D3necessary during pregnancy and lactation.
Skin coloration in humans is adaptive and labile. Skin pigmentation
levels have changed more than once in human evolution. Because of
this, skin coloration is of no value in determining phylogenetic
relationships among modern human groups.?
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://ap/hu/2000/00000039/00000001/art00403&unc=


   ?Predators will limp and are less stoical. When in pain, such
animals will rest a lot and lick wounds.?
http://www.oie.int/eng/publicat/rt/2402/PDF/jordan515-528.pdf



   ?Normal chimpanzees can vary considerably in size. Adults can weigh
anywhere from 20 to 80 kilograms. Their skin is also quite different
from ours. Their sebaceous glands (which function to ?waterproof? the
skin) are not as well developed, and only rarely contain glycogen
granules, which are abundant in all human sebaceous glands. Apocrine
sweat glands, which are found only in the underarm and genital area of
humans, are distributed over most of the body of chimps. Humans lack
sinus hair follicles (?whiskers?), which are present in the brow, lips
and chin of chimps.28

These dramatic differences highlight the problems with using
chimpanzees as surrogates for human diseases. Not only is data from
chimpanzees misleading, but their continued use aggravates their
dwindling numbers.?
http://www.pcrm.org/resch/anexp/chimps.html


  ?Compare one?s body to that of a chimpanzee?there are many similarities. Look
for example, at its arms or legs, which have rather different proportion from our
own, but are basically the same. If we look at the internal organs
there is not much to distinguish a chimpanzee?s heart or liver from
our own. Even if we examined the cells in these organs, we will again
find that they are very similar to ours. Yet we are different, very
different from chimpanzees?We posses no cell types that the chimpanzee
does not, nor does the chimpanzee have any cells that we do not have.
The difference between us and the chimpanzee lies in the spatial
organization of the cells.6?
http://www.navs.org/site/DocServer/Medical_Research_detail.pdf?docID=401




   ?Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) is a member of the fibroblast
growth factor family. Portions of the gene encoding KGF were amplified
during primate evolution and are present in multiple nonprocessed
copies in the human genome. Nucleotide analysis of a representative
sampling of these KGF-like sequences indicated that they were at least
95% identical to corresponding regions of the KGF gene. To localize
these sequences to specific chromosomal sites in human and higher
primates, we used fluorescence in situ hybridization. In human, using
a cosmid probe encoding KGF exon 1, we assigned the location of the
KGF gene to chromosome 15q15-21.1. In addition, copies of KGF-like
sequences hybridizing only with a cosmid probe encoding exons 2 and 3
were localized to dispersed sites on chromosome 2q21, 9p11, 9q12-13,
18p11, 18q11, 21q11, and 21q21.1.


   The distribution of KGF-like sequences suggests a role for alphoid
DNA in their amplification and dispersion. In chimpanzee, KGF-like
sequences were observed at five chromosomal sites, which were each
homologous to sites in human, while in gorilla, a subset of four of
these homologous sites was identified; in orangutan two sites were
identified, while gibbon exhibited only a single site.?
http://www.snps3d.org/search/?q=geneid:2252&hLight=pressure,&limitShow=10



   ?A potential reason for that difference is a segment of human DNA
called a pseudogene. The actual gene, known as ?hHaA, makes a keratin
protein in chimps and gorillas. Although the same DNA sequence is
preserved in humans, human cells don't use it to make the protein.
That's why scientists call it a pseudogene.
"I don't have any sense that this necessarily is a clue," Neufeld
says. "It's just the only article I was able to find in the literature
that distinguished human hair from chimpanzee or gorilla hair, in
terms of molecular biology and biochemical makeup."
http://mednews.wustl.edu/tips/page/normal/4405.html


In some animal models, scientists have found that hair follicle stem
cells aid in skin healing!
?Wounds, including skin ulcers and other dermatological problems
associated with diabetes, circulatory problems, and other diseases,
are a growing medical problem in the United States, notes senior
author George Cotsarelis, MD, Associate Professor of Dermatology.
Previous work by the Penn research team had outlined the hair-growth
process to show that stem cells in the hair follicle "bulge" area
generate new lower hair follicles, which in turn, generate new hair.
Their latest finding?that these same stem cells play a key role in
initiating wound healing?will help lay the foundation for designing
more effective wound-healing strategies.?
http://www.stemcellresearchfoundation.org/WhatsNew/December_2005.htm#1

http://www.theallineed.com/biology/06012504.htm



   ?Epidermal melanin has important evolutionary and physiological
implications, particularly for unclothed humans. Thus high melanin
content (racial pigmentation) protects the skin against ultraviolet
(UV)-induced skin damage through its optical and chemical filtering
properties (8). Indeed, skin pigment levels and anthropological origin
are closely associated, with higher pigment amounts in regions of
lower latitude and higher UV radiation levels. However, this
connection may only be a recent human adaptation since early hominids
may have possessed dark, dense, terminal body hair. A closely related
primate, the chimpanzee, similar to most other nonhuman primates,
exhibits white or lightly pigmented epidermis (591). Interestingly,
chimpanzees have active melanocytes only in the epidermis of those
areas directly exposed to UV radiation, e.g., face and friction
surfaces?
http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/84/4/1155


   ?Thank goodness for N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc). As yet, a
variation in this single sugar is the only consequence that
researchers are able to ascribe directly to the one to two per cent
difference in genomes that distinguishes us humans from one of our
closest evolutionary relatives, chimpanzees. What makes Neu5Gc so
special in evolutionary terms is that - unlike chimps and all other
mammals - we humans do not possess an active gene that encodes the
enzyme responsible for producing it. Unlike in all other mammals,
therefore, this sugar is totally absent from human brains. This simple
change in brain chemistry, some scientists are now speculating, may
explain why we humans went on to develop the higher intelligence that
supposedly separates us from all 'lower' species. Had evolution taken
a different course, who knows - maybe Planet of the apes might not
seem so far-fetched after all.?

?Biological recognition in this way is incredibly subtle, Dell says.
The best example involves a cluster of sugars called sialyl Lewis x
(sLex) that bind to a trio of proteins called selectins (E, L and P).
Recognition in this case typically occurs when body tissues are
damaged or injured in some way. When damage occurs, selectins appear
on the surfaces of cells lining nearby blood vessels. There they
recognise and bind to sLex on the surface of white blood cells or
leukocytes in the circulating bloodstream, thereby recruiting these
defensive cells to fight infection at the site of injury.?

?THP is just one more piece in the jigsaw puzzle of how human life
arguably begins. Gradually, researchers are beginning to assemble the
bigger picture. But progress may be about to accelerate. With the
unravelling of the human genome, researchers are already learning more
about the structures of the key transferase enzymes involved in
glycoprotein synthesis. In a different context, this has also been
exploited in the recent headline-making news about growing human
organs successfully in pigs. The trick here is to knock out or
suppress the activity of the transferase a-1,3-galactosyl (or
alpha-gal) that adds to the surface of pig cells. This is a sugar that
human tissues recognise as foreign and would attempt to reject.

Evolution was apparently once again responsible for the loss of this
particular enzyme in humans and Old World primates. Sugars, in all
their various guises, it seems may have a bigger part to play in all
aspects of life than anyone might previously have suspected. Exactly
what role the selectins may have in this story still remains to be
seen.?
http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/ezine/2002/odriscoll_jul02.htm



   The entire article from which this paragraph is abstracted costs $39 USD
?In human airways, ?-defensins function in the elimination of various
pathogens. They have been identified in a wide range of species. Here
we report the identification and expression of chimpanzee ?-defensin-1
(cBD1), which is a homolog of human ?-defensin-1, in chimpanzee
airways and skin. The cBD1 cDNA sequence differs by only one
synonymous nucleotide substitution compared to the human cDNA
sequence. In situ hybridization revealed that in lung tissue beside
alveolar macrophages also airway epithelial cells, endothelial cells
and type II pneumocytes express cBD1 mRNA. In skin, cBD1 mRNA was
expressed in keratinocytes and endothelial cells. Together, these
results show similarity in structure and expression pattern and
perhaps in function.?
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0684.2000.290502.x


?In mammals, wound healing is a complex process which starts when a
clot forms over the injury. Gradually, cells "migrate" into the clot
to close the wound.  However, in the mice lacking the gene, the skin
cells needed to close the wound appeared to be produced, but instead
of heading into the clot, they "bunched up" at the edges of the wound.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2956762.stm


   ?Isik also discovered that only the bone marrow-derived cells were
able to make a particular type of collagen found not just in healed
wounds, but in skin all over the body. This led him to conclude that
cells from bone marrow help form the tough, yet expandable, matrix of
skin. Isik now wonders whether diseases that interfere with wound
healing, such as diabetes, do so because they affect bone marrow
cells. In time, this line of research may reveal targets for drugs to
speed wound healing.?
http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:7HKTkWv0IVIJ:publications.nigms.nih.gov/findings/mar05/findings_mar05.pdf+matrix+molecules+%2B+healing+%2B+chimpanzee&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=14


   ?"When primate skin heals, the ridges curl inward toward the
wound," he said. "Someone would have to know a real lot about biology
and dermatoglyphics to know that. Anybody that smart wouldn't be
messing with fakes."? Chilcutt developed an expertise in primate skin
patterns as an offshoot of his ongoing study of the human fingerprint.
His archive of more than 1,000 ape-skin impressions - prints he
collected from tranquilized orangutans, chimpanzees and gorillas - is
the largest such collection in the world.

When Chilcutt visited Meldrum's lab, it seemed his hunch would turn
out to be accurate. He quickly determined that the ridges he found in
the first track Meldrum gave him were from a human finger.:
http://www.bfro.net/GDB/show_article.asp?id=53



   ?Human skin also differs from that of primates in respect of its
greater thickness and elasticity, a radical transformation of the skin
glands, and the way it is connected to a layer of fibrous tissue and a
fat layer, described by John Napier as "one of humankind?s greatest
unsung hallmarks" and found elsewhere only in aquatic species. William
Montagna after years of exhaustive research into all aspects of
primate skin, reported in 1972 that the problem of human nakedness
continued to defy solution.?
http://users.ugent.be/~mvaneech/Morgan.html


   ?Quantitative comparisons by a sensitive enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay indicated that certain primate involucrins have a
higher density of antigenic determinants than the human protein,
whereas others lack some determinant(s).
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=299341



   ?The presence of phylogenetically distinct and functionally and
structurally differing sweat glands within humans and several closely
related species indicate that either the distribution of eccrine
glands (and associated reduction of apocrine glands throughout the
body) can be traced back to the common ancestor of chimpanzees,
gorillas, and humans, that it can be traced back to the common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans with a parallel development in
Gorilla (or common ancestry for humans and gorillas with separate
origin in Pan depending on the phylogenetic tree used), or that it has
a separate origin in all three lineages. Through parsimony, the least
likely scenario would be complete independent formation of the eccrine
distribution, but it should be noted that in a species of tree shrew,
an eccrine system has developed independently; and therefore
independent origin is not at all impossible. Proceeding to a more
parsimonious answer, the shared derived state of two lineages and the
independent origin in one species, it is unclear if this is - in
reality - more likely than complete three-way independent origin, as
if the selective pressures under whose aegis this trait would develop
was common to all lineages and developed independently in at least two
lineages within a relatively short evolutionary timeframe, it may be
no more likely for two origins versus three, though it is more
parsimonious.

 The most parsimonious explanation is the single origin of the trait
and the shared derived status of the eccrine distribution in the three
African lineages. Parsimony leads to the most logical choice in terms
of probabilities within a sterile mathematical phylogeny, but does not
always provide the most likely scenario, which must be determined from
the whole of available evidence.?
http://www.modernhumanorigins.net/anth501.html


   You may find this Listserve interesting:
?The source is : The skin of non-human primates by William
Montagna in Am. Zoologist, 12:109-124 (1972)
re eccrine glands in primates :"One might surmise that, like
man, these animals sweat in response to heat stimulation.
However, with singular exceptions, if the glands secrete at
all, the amount is so small that it cannot be recorded.
Sometimes animals show beads of sweat on the facial
disc when under deep anesthesia, but our efforts to induce 
thermal sweating have failed. We have also largely failed to
induce sweating with sudorific drugs. In the chimpanzee,
very few, small sweat drops were recorded even after the
administration of shockingly large doses of these drugs."
"why do these glands not function when they seem to have all
the equipment for doing so?"
"It appears, then, that eccrine glands are relatively new
acquisitions in the hairy skin of primates and that only in
man do they really serve the purpose of thermoregulation."
http://unauthorised.org/anthropology/sci.anthropology.paleo/july-1995/0431.html
 



   "Cutaneous wound healing is a complex process encompassing a number
of overlapping events that include leukocyte recruitment, matrix
deposition, epithelialization, and ultimately resolution of
inflammation with the formation of a mature scar. Impaired age-related
wound healing states ? involving both acute wounds that fail to heal
and chronic ulcers ? are characterized by excessive leukocytosis and
subsequently enhanced proteolytic degradation of matrix constituents?
?One critical mediator of wound healing is the hormone estrogen, which
accelerates repair in both human and animal models.?
http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/full/110/5/615


   ?Wound healing and tissue repair is highly dependent upon the
optimal regulatory control of local and systemic hormones, sequential
release of essential cytokines, optimal load histories, and nutrient
delivery to the injured area. Following spaceflight and/or HS, a
diminished immune system response has been reported (7). Decreased
IL-1, IL-2 and TNF-? production was recorded from rat spleen cells
flown on the SLS-2 mission (5).

A decreased lymphocyte function was recorded in Russian cosmonauts
following spaceflight (1), while rhesus monkeys flown 14 days have
exhibited a decrease in IL-1 production and a decrease in IL-2
receptor expression (6) Other endocrine functions are compromised
during spaceflight and hindlimb suspension, specifically the secretion
of growth hormone (GH).

   Hindlimb unloaded rats showed a diminished secretion of
bioassayable GH, a decreased responsiveness to growth hormone
releasing factor (GRF) (2), and a decreased immunoassayable plasma GH
in intact rats (10) and decreased plasma GH concentration following
spaceflight (2). Non-human primates showed a marked suppression of GH
secretion after 14 d of flight on the BION 10 (Cosmos 2229) (3). Thus,
it is apparent that changes in immune and endocrine functions occur in
humans (astronauts and cosmonauts), non-human primates and rodents
following spaceflight and could compromise the wound healing
processes. Therefore, the primary objective of our project is to use
the rodent knee ligament injury repair model to study the impact HS
has on the wound healing processes.?
http://www.dsls.usra.edu/meetings/bio2001/pdf/068.pdf



   ?Wild chimpanzees eat several plant species claimed by traditional
healers to cure diseases. However, the behaviour leading apes to
ingest these peculiar species is not clearly understood. Some of the
items consumed by chimpanzees have low nutritional value, and there is
a growing body of evidence suggesting that health might be improved or
regulated by such ingestion. Observations concerning the diet and the
health condition of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
in the Kibale National Park (Uganda) are discussed in relation to the
ethnomedicinal utilization of plant species reviewed in literature.
Among the 163 plant parts known to be eaten by these chimpanzees, at
least 35 (21.4%) are used in traditional medicine as treatments for
intestinal parasites, skin infections, reproduction and respiratory
diseases.?

   ?Aglaia (family Meliaceae) plants are used in traditional medicine
(e.g., in Vietnam) for the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases and
allergic inflammatory disorders such as asthma. Inflammatory diseases
arise from inappropriate activation of the immune system, leading to
abnormal expression of genes encoding inflammatory cytokines and
tissue-destructive enzymes. The active compounds isolated from these
plants are derivatives of rocaglamide. In this study we show that
rocaglamides are potent immunosuppressive phytochemicals that suppress
IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-2, and IL-4 production in peripheral blood T
cells at nanomolar concentrations. We demonstrate that rocaglamides
inhibit cytokine gene expression at the transcriptional level.
http://dumenat.smbh.univ-paris13.fr/medl/05pdf/05/2005_05_tradmed2.pdf



   ?Chimps are lumped with gorillas and orangutans in the same family,
Pongidae, whereas humans are in the family Hominidae.
But a study in 2003 found that 99.4 percent of important DNA sites are
the same in chimps and humans. Other researchers have since concluded
that there are crucial differences in the genetic software of the two
species, however. Only a few months ago was the full chimp DNA
sequence unraveled.?
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10994885/from/RL.2/



   ?Since differences in wound healing between sexes appeared to be
significant in humans, we further investigated the mechanisms
underlying these responses in an animal model. Male gonads secrete a
number of factors that may influence wound repair. In addition to the
predominant hormone testosterone and small quantities of estrogen,
other factors produced by the testes have been shown to modulate wound
repair in animal models, including activin and follistatin (30-32). We
reasoned that since testosterone is produced in the most significant
quantities, coupled with the correlation in humans between delayed
healing and testosterone levels, the effects we observed after
castration were modulated by gonadal androgens. To determine the
mechanisms underlying the effects of castration, we used AR blockade
with oral administration of flutamide prior to and during the wound
healing process. Our results suggest that flutamide treatment results
in accelerated healing and dampened inflammation, mimicking the
effects of castration (Figure 6, a and b), and was associated with
reduced tissue expression of TNF-  (Figure 6c).

 Recent reports suggest that both gonadal androgens and adrenal sex
steroid precursors in primates may act not only through the AR but
also via the estrogen receptor. Our findings are in keeping with
gonadal androgens acting specifically through the AR to reduce local
tissue inflammation and modulate wound repair. Since TNF-  activates
NF- B, which in turn induces gene expression of a plethora of
proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-  itself, we investigated the
activity of NF- B in wound tissue nuclear extracts from control and
flutamide-treated male mice. EMSA showed NF- B activity to be strongly
increased in day 3 wound tissue compared with normal skin; activation
was suppressed by flutamide treatment (Figure 6c). Such data suggest a
potential role for the AR in mediating the positive feedback loop that
exists between TNF-  and NF- B activity. ?
http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/full/110/5/615


   ?Many primate species serve as surrogates in studies of human
physiology and disease, and their nutritional status is known to 
influence susceptibility and tissue responses to infective agents. The
validity of such research is open to question if the experimental
subjects have not been appropriately nourished. Likewise, the health
and reproduction of primates in zoos can be compromised to an extent
that renders the maintenance or multiplication of endangered species
impossible.?
http://library.primate.wisc.edu/collections/books/nutrient.html



   ?A new model developed by Michael Galko, a postdoctoral fellow in
the lab of biochemist Mark Krasnow at Stanford, may expedite answers.
Writing in the journal Public Library of Science Biology (August
2004), he describes a puncture-wound assay in Drosophila larvae that
shares important cellular and molecular features with vertebrate
healing. Even the authors were surprised that the broad outlines were
so similar, given the differences in tissue architecture between fruit
flies and vertebrate animals. The work has attracted enthusiastic
support among colleagues.

 According to Paul Martin of the University of Bristol in the U.K., a
leader in the field and author of more than 30 papers on the science
of wound healing, such similarities in a "genetically tractable"
organism provide a powerful tool: "It's got scabs, migratory cells and
genetics to boot."?

   ?A bare summary of wound healing in mammals goes like this: As
blood clots, the clot traps platelets and cells in a net of connective
fibers. The platelets attract immune cells to attack bacteria and
scavenge debris; keratinocytes (skin cells) creep toward the damage,
using the scab as scaffolding. Finally, fibroblasts (other skin cells)
pay out collagen fibers and provide the muscle (literally) to tug the
wound closed as migrating cells cover the site and re-form a covering
of layered skin. The puncture model in Drosophila larvae follows the
same general script, albeit with a few twists.?

?Full-thickness wounds were made in fetal rhesus monkey lips from 75
through 114 days gestation (n = 6, term = 165 days). Wounds were
harvested at 14 days postwounding and processed for histology
(hematoxylin & eosin, Masson's trichrome) as well as
immunohistochemistry (human type I or type III collagen). RESULTS:
Wounds healed with complete restoration of normal tissue architecture
in the 75-day gestation fetus. However in the 85-100 day gestation
fetuses, wounds healed with an absence of hair follicles and sebaceous
glands, but the dermal collagen pattern remained reticular and similar
to that in unwounded dermis. At 107 days, a thin scar was present in
the wound, thereby demonstrating a transition to scar formation
between 100 and 107 days gestation (early 3rd trimester) in the
non-human primate. CONCLUSIONS: In the non-human primate fetus, a
transition from scarless repair to adult-type repair with scar
formation occurs in the early third trimester. These data provide
insight into the transition process; the ontogeny of scar formation is
characterized initially by wounds healing without the presence of
epidermal appendages but with a normal reticular dermal collagen
pattern, which we term the "transition wound."?
http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/39262



   ?In considering the color of human skin in the long span of human
evolution, Jablonski and Chaplin note that there is no empirical
evidence to suggest that the human ancestors six million years ago had
a skin color different from the skin color of today's
chimpanzees?namely pale-skinned under black hair. But as humans
evolved to lose their body hair a parallel evolution permitted human
populations to turn their base skin color dark or white over a period
of less than a thousand years to adjust to the competing demands of 1)
increasing eumelanin to protect from UV that was too intense and 2)
reducing eumelanin so that enough UV would penetrate to synthesize
enough vitamin D.

 By this explanation, in the time that humans lived only in Africa,
humans had dark skin to the extent that they lived for extended
periods of time where the sunlight is intense. As some humans migrated
north, over time they developed white skin, though they retained
within the gene pool the capability to develop black skin when they
migrated to areas with intense sunlight again, such as across the
Bering Strait and south to the Equator.?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin_color



   ?Furthermore, as in man, but in contrast to rodents, chimpanzee
skin contains a very high level of melanocytes in the epidermis;
approximately 3,320+/-350 per square millimeter skin. Chimpanzee
melanosomes are long, wide, and fully melanized. In keratinocytes,
these organelles are individually dispersed in all body regions,
regardless of the degree of skin color, as is true for other mammalian
species with large melanosomes.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1211438&dopt=Abstract


?DABSKA-LIKE TUMOR IN A CHIMPANZEE (Pan Troglodytes). 
D.A. Alves1, M.F. Stidworthy2, J.M. Hamilton3, J.C.M. Lewis2, D.A.
Belote1, and M.G. Mense1. 1Armed Forces Institute of Pathology,
Washington, D.C.; 2International Zoo Veterinary Group, Keighley, West
Yorkshire, UK; and 3IDEXX Laboratories, Wetherby, West Yorkshire, UK.
In humans, the Dabska tumor (malignant endovascular papillary
angioendothelioma, papillary intralymphatic angioendothelioma) is
considered an extremely rare, low-grade malignancy that most often
affects infants and children. It shows a wide anatomic distribution,
with predilection for the skin. The medical literature suggests that
these lesions recur locally and rarely spread to lymph nodes without
systemic metastasis. Close clinical monitoring for regrowth or
metastasis is recommended. This 4 year-old male chimpanzee (Pan
troglodytes) had a rapidly appearing, approximately 75 x 50 mm in
diameter, raised, cutaneous, sparsely haired, plaque-like dermal
nodule in the mid-lumbar region of the back. Microscopically, within
the dermis, neoplastic cells variably occlude dilated lymphatics and
extend as papillary structures from the lymphatic lining. When not
visibly intravascular, the cells form nodules and nests, and
infiltrate the adjacent dermis.

 Neoplastic cells are spindled to polygonal and are supported by a
moderate fibrovascular stroma that is often centrally hyalinized.
Cells have variably distinct borders, scant to small amounts of
eosinophilic fibrillar to amorphous cytoplasm, and oval nuclei with
finely stippled chromatin and 1-2 distinct nucleoli. There is mild
anisokaryosis and mitotic figures average 1-2 per high power field.
Immunohistochemically, neoplastic cells are positive for vimentin,
CD31, CD34, Factor VIII related antigen, and S100; and negative for
kermix, keratin 903, cytokeratin 7, cytokeratin 20, epithelial
membrane antigen (EMA), Ber EP4 epithelial antigen, and Melan A. To
date, this lesion has not recurred after removal. To our knowledge,
there are no published reports of a similar primary lymphatic neoplasm
in a non-human primate.?
http://www.acvp.org/meeting/2004/2004yiawinners.php


   ?We here report on the identification of a novel human EGF-TM7
receptor, designated EMR4. Like most EGF-TM7 receptor genes, EMR4 is
localized on the short arm of chromosome 19, in close proximity to
EMR1. Remarkably, due to a one-nucleotide deletion in exon 8,
translation of human EMR4 would result in a truncated 232-amino acid
protein lacking the entire seven-span transmembrane region. This
deletion is not present in nonhuman primates, including chimpanzees,
suggesting that EMR4 became nonfunctional only after human speciation,
about five million years ago. Thus, EMR4 surprisingly accounts for a
genetic difference between humans and primates related to immunity.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12731063&dopt=Abstract


Edited by Montagna:
?The Arg163Gln variant is absent in the Africans studied, almost
absent in Europeans, and at a low frequency (7%) in Indians, but is at
an exceptionally high frequency (70%) in East and Southeast Asians.
The MC1R gene in common and pygmy chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutan, and
baboon was sequenced to study the evolution of MC1R. The ancestral
human MC1R sequence is identical to the human consensus protein
sequence, while MC1R varies considerably among higher primates. A
comparison of the rates of substitution in genes in the melanocortin
receptor family indicates that MC1R has evolved the fastest. In
addition, the nucleotide diversity at the MC1R locus is shown to be
several times higher than the average nucleotide diversity in human
populations, possibly due to diversifying selection.?
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/151/4/1547




   ?GENE FUNCTION - Werner et al. (1994) assessed the function of KGF
in normal and wounded skin by expression of a dominant-negative KGF
receptor (176943) in basal keratinocytes. The skin of transgenic mice
was characterized by epidermal atrophy, abnormalities in the hair
follicles, and dermal hyperthickening. Upon skin injury, inhibition of
KGF receptor signaling reduced the proliferation rate of epidermal
keratinocytes at the wound edge, resulting in substantially delayed
reepithelialization of the wound.?
http://srs.embl-heidelberg.de:8000/srs5bin/cgi-bin/wgetz?-e+%5Bomim-id:148180%5D



Additional Reading:
===================

   A rather dramatic telling of skin healing in humans, in the form of
a screenplay!
http://www.itl.usyd.edu.au/synergy/smith.htm


   ?We have analyzed the ELN gene in a variety of primate species to
determine whether the absence of exons 34 and 35 in humans either is
due to allelic variation within the human population or is a general
characteristic of the Primates order. An analysis of the 38 end of the
ELN gene in several nonhuman primates and in 546 chromosomes from
humans of varying ethnic background demonstrated a sequential loss of
exons 34 and 35 during primate evolution. The loss of exon 35 occurred
at least 35?45 million years ago, when Catarrhines diverged from
Platyrrhines (New World monkeys).

 Exon 34 loss, in contrast, occurred only about 6?8 million years ago,
when Homo separated from the common ancestor shared with chimpanzees
and gorillas. Loss of both exons was probably facilitated by
Alu-mediated recombination events and possibly conferred a functional
evolutionary advantage in elastic tissue.?
http://batzerlab.lsu.edu/Publications/Szabo%20et%20al.%201999%20J%20Molecular%20Evolution.pdf


   ?Despite a high frequency of atopic rhinitis and polyps, bronchial
asthma is rarely diagnosed in chimpanzees. Acne vulgaris, a common
skin affliction of human teenagers also appears to be uncommon in the
adolescent chimpanzee. Another common human disorder that apparently
has not been detected in chimpanzees is rheumatoid arthritis. The
external physical manifestations of each of these diseases are so
obvious that they are very unlikely to have been missed by the
experienced veterinarians involved in the long-term care of captive
chimpanzees. Of course, one cannot rule out a generally lower
sensitivity of caregivers for picking up mild versions of these
illnesses in chimps.?
http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/10/8/1065


Not chimp related, but regeneration genes:
?What we would like to learn is how this mouse is able to regenerate,
while other mouse strains are unable to regenerate.  We find that the
regeneration mouse can completely heal an ear punch hole in less than
30 days.  In contrast, other mice can only heal an ear punch hole by
about 50 percent, no matter how long they are given to heal the wound.
 To discover these regeneration genes, we are interfacing computer
methods with genetic methods.?
http://www.redlandsfortnightly.org/papers/Baylink02.htm



   ?ARE APES FRUITARIAN? As an argument in favour of a fruitarian
diet, it is often heard that man in the origin was fruitarian, and
that it is proved by the fact that the closest animals to man,
monkeys, are fruitarian.
In truth, they are mostly fruitarian, but not completely. A lot of
ethological observations have shown that they can eat many other kinds
of food, even insects and meat.

It doesn't change the fact that they eat fruits, for most parts, but
just to point out, once again, that no one is perfect...
So what do apes eat?

	Dwarf Chimpanzee.
They are the closest to man. Their similarity to the primitive man
Australopithecus is stunning. Some scientists call them "The Missing
Link"
They spend one third of their time finding food. 
They eat mostly fruit, integrated by some blades and some whole plants.	
Chimpanzees	
Fruit, leaves. 
But they can eat rabbits and baboons from time to time	
(Non-scientific)
http://www.arceri.dk/fruithealing.htm



Articles for purchase:
======================

   You may be interested in purchasing this article. This is the Google snippet:
?? worked with chimpanzees in Africa. (continued on page 28) ... A
Scar Is Born. T. he mechanism underlying acne. scar formation is
poorly under- ...?
http://dermatology.jwatch.org/issue_pdf/JD0403.PDF


?The vital role of the skin in human natural historyBruce A. Cohn MD?  $39 USD
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-4362.1998.00575.x



?The skin of primates. XLIV. Numerical taxonomy of primate skin? $25 USD
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110487053/ABSTRACT


Purchase this article for $25 USD:
The skin of primates. XV. The skin of the chimpanzee (Pan satyrus) 
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110523742/ABSTRACT



Abstract
The epidermal melanocyte system of the chimpanzee was studied by the
combined skin-splitting DOPA, and electron microscopic techniques. It
is very similar to man. There are DOPA-positive epidermal melanocytes
in all body regions regardless of the degree of macroscopic skin
pigmentation or hirsutism. Furthermore, as in man, but in contrast to
rodents, chimpanzee skin contains a very high level of melanocytes in
the epidermis; approximately 3,320 ± 350 per square millimeter skin.

Chimpanzee melanosomes are long, wide, and fully melanized. In
keratinocytes, these organelles are individually dispersed in all body
regions, regardless of the degree of skin color, as is true for other
mammalian species with large melanosomes.

This article can be purchased for $25 USD
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110488365/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0


An unscientific bit of information:
?Apart from those skeletal differences, we don?t have primate brains
(that is an understatement!), throats (we can?t eat or drink and
breathe at the same time; they can); voices (they can make loud calls,
but we can modulate them into the tiny pieces of sound that make up
words); body covering (they all have pelts of hair from head to toe,
thick on the back and lighter on the front; we have no pelt and our
thickness pattern is reversed); we cool ourselves by sweating
profusely (they tend to pant, though some sweat lightly); we shed
tears of emotion (no other primate does); we do not regulate our salt
intake (all other primates do); we have a layer of fat of varying
thickness attached to the underside of our skin, which primates do not
have; that fat layer prevents wounds to our skin from healing as
easily as wounds to primate skin; human females have no estrus cycle,
as do all primates; but the number one difference between humans and
primates is that humans have only 46 chromosomes while all higher
primates have 48!?
http://www.lloydpye.com/A-Darwinism.htm


   ?Laboratory-based primatologists, particularly specialists in
veterinary medicine and pathology, should find that the density and
diversity of lesions on these skulls go far beyond what would be
encountered in animals under management in zoos or primate colonies.
The wounds seen in these Liberian chimpanzees are of unusual interest
because their healing has taken place in the absence of medical
treatment.?
http://www.brown.edu/Research/Primate/lpn27-4.html


   ?The Mende people of West Africa gain knowledge of herbal medicine
by observing wild chimpanzees that are sick. A forestry worker
observed a chimpanzee chew up a certain leaf and spit it onto the
affected area of skin. When he later tested it on himself, the
observer found that it was effective against skin irritations. A
similar case was recorded in the 1920s when an English woman was
travelling through Liberia and was told by an old local woman that she
had watched a female chimpanzee treat her infant's skin complaint with
some large flat leaves that she had crushed and pounded between her
fingers and applied them to the baby's infected area. The old woman
later found these leaves to have curative properties.

Although observations of self-medication in gorillas is meagre, these
great apes must also benefit from phytochemicals which inhibit certain
pathogens. In Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Ugandan gorillas share a
number of the same medicinal plants with humans. Park wardens have
noted that 35 plant species form the core diet of gorillas in this
region, and that several of them are also medicinal plants. The bark
of one of these, Dombeya quinqueseta, is used to combat diarrhoea, and
analysis has identified a mixture of fatty acids (including palmitic,
stearic, linoleic and linolenic) and phytosterols (including
beta-sitosterol). These compounds are potent antimicrobials. Other
gorilla foods from this area found to possess active medicinal
properties are Rubus rigidus and Brillantaisia kirungae. Local
medicine men watch what gorillas and other animals do when sick to
discover herbal treatments.?
http://www.berggorilla.org/english/gjournal/texte/25cousins.html


   ?Though having some similarities to that of the rhesus monkey, the
skin of the stump-tail macaque has several unique features. The
epidermis has a sparse population of active melanocytes, and there is
practically no pigmentation in the dermis. The dermis is rich in
elastic fibers, the function of which seems to be to anchor the hair
follicles and the arrectores pilorum muscles, and the superficial
blood vessels. Large numbers of eccrine and apocrine sweat glands in
the forehead and scalp are reminiscent of the axillary organ in the
Hominioidea. The very large sebaceous glands on the face and bald
forehead and scalp resemble those of man. The forehead and anterior
portion of the scalp are bald in the adult but not in juvenile
animals. In spite of an apparently rich pelage, these animals seem to
show a trend toward nakedness.?
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110523233/ABSTRACT


Since primates don?t smoke, nor are exposed to second-hand smoke?
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/04/040407082100.htm

Rapid Skin Repair
http://www.qmuseum.qld.gov.au/education/biobus/pdf/QMBiobus_RapidRepair.pdf


Estrogen and skin healing
http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/full/111/9/1309


?Modern taxonomists are not as generous as Linné in welcoming other
species into Man's lofty dominion, and the chimpanzee is now referred
to as Pan troglodytes. But Pan or Homo, there is no doubt that chimps
are humans' nearest living relatives, and that if the secrets of what
makes humanity special are ever to be disentangled, understanding why
chimps are not people, nor people chimps, is a crucial part of the
process. That, in turn, means looking at the DNA of the two species,
for it is here that the differences must originate.?
http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?story_id=4342312



There is a rather interesting Power Point presentation link on this
page, comparing the human-chimpanzee genetic divergence:
 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7055/suppinfo/nature04072.html

Genetic divergence
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7055/full/nature04072.html


Several Chimp issues:
http://blogs.lsusdebate.org/?cat=51


Integrins in wound healing
http://www.bioteach.ubc.ca/Biomedicine/WoundClosure/index.htm

Restricted distribution of integrin beta 6 mRNA in primate epithelial tissues.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8245410&dopt=Abstract

?My laboratory carries out fundamental research on the human brain.
One of our major goals is to identify the evolutionary specializations
of the human brain, which we do by comparing humans to chimpanzees and
to other nonhuman primates. We want to understand the extent to which
evolutionary expansion of the human brain was accompanied by the
addition of new areas or by the enlargement and internal
reorganization of existing areas. To this end, we carry out
comparative studies of cortical organization using immunocytochemistry
and other techiniques that are useful for mapping cortical areas and
investigating the laminar and cellular organization of cortex. We have
used these techniques to demonstrate remarkable differences in the
organization of visual cortex in humans, chimpanzees, and Old world
monkeys, and we are now exploring other regions, especially frontal
ccortex. Recently, we have begun to employ genomics techniques to
identify genes that are differentially expressed in human brains,
followed by in situ hybridization and immunocytochemical studies to
demonstrate where the genes identified by genomics are expressed in
the nervous system. These studies will enable us to better understand
the distinctive functional capacities of the human brain and its
distinctive vulnerability to disease.?
http://www.nbb.emory.edu/faculty/research.html

?4. Difficulties with wound healing (v. Madawar 1955) No trend
to that.
5. Outer surface of epidermis criss-crossed with congenital
wrinkles visible under microscope. No trend to that (In 
primates but cf. elephant and see the same thing writ large)
6. Human skin displays sexual dimorphism -women's more
supple, fatty, and turgid. No trend to that.
7. Remaining body hair in human males longer on the chest
than on the back. No trend to that in any land mammal
(but common in semi-aquatics, v. Sokolov, Nature. 62)
8. Human skin is far more sensitive - each follicle has a
well-structures sensory nerve-organ. No trend to that.
9. Subcutaneous fat layer bonded to the skin. No trend to that
(but cf most aquatics)
In short we are a far cry from the patas or the apes.
Something must have happened to us that did not happen
to them.
http://unauthorised.org/anthropology/sci.anthropology.paleo/january-1995/0225.html

?The aim of the present study was to examine to what extent pH affects
human fibroblast repopulation of an experimental wound in vitro laying
special emphasis on cell migration, DNA synthesis, and alterations in
cell morphology. Wounds were simulated in vitro by partially scraping
off monolayers of human embryonic diploid lung fibroblast and human
periodontal ligament fibroblast-like cells respectively. The wounded
monolayers were cultured at pHs ranging from 7.2 to 8.4. The
experiments were evaluated by autoradiography as well as light and
scanning electron microscopic techniques. A significant, approximately
linear, decrease was noted both in cell migration into and DNA
synthesis in the experimental wounds as a result of pH increase. The
surviving cells in the wounds showed cytoplasmatic vacuoles and
blebbing at pH levels above 7.8. Clinical implications of these
results for endodontic calcium hydroxide treatment are that hydroxyl
ions, diffusing through root dentin, may interfere with vital cell
functions necessary for healing on the root surface.?
http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/histcomp/hayflick-l_all1/index-tc-18.html


?Building moving pictures of gene expression using SS-RT-PCR,
differential display, and RNA array technologies of normal and
patholgoical conditions.
1.	scarless wound healing (1995-date); 
2.	premature craniosynostosis (1998-date); 
3.	bacterial biofilm formation in the middle ear (both bacterial and
mucosal gene expression patterns) (1998-date)
4.	Barrett's metaplasia (2002); 
5.	Colon cancer metastasis (2001) 
http://centerforgenomicsciences.org/faculty/ehrlichg.html

"Consequently, comparative studies of apo(a) sequences in different
Old World monkey species should further our understanding of the
molecular role of Lp(a) in the fibrinolytic process. In contrast to
other Old World monkeys, including rhesus monkey, cynomolgus, and
baboon, the chimpanzee exhibits an elevated level of Lp(a) and a
distinct isoform distribution as compared to humans [Doucet et al. J.
Lipid Res. (1994) 35, 263-270]. Clearly then, the chimpanzee is an
interesting animal model for study of the structure, function, and
potential pathophysiological roles of Lp(a). We have cloned and
sequenced the region of chimpanzee apo(a) cDNA spanning KIV-3 to the
stop codon. The global organization of this region is similar to that
of human apo(a) with the presence of KV, which is absent in rhesus
monkey apo(a). Nucleotide sequence comparison indicates a variation of
1.4% between chimpanzee and man and 5.1% between chimpanzee and rhesus
monkey. The differences concerned single base changes. An Asp57 -->
Asn mutation was detected in KIV-10; this residue is critical to the
LBS of KIV-10 in human apo(a)"
http://moult.umbi.umd.edu/human2004/modules.php?name=Medline&gene=ABL2&PHPSESSID=057aecfd1b1133e3420ce46ff69138a5


?Expanding the functional human mitochondrial DNA database by the
establishment of primate xenomitochondrial cybrids?

http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/17/9131


Additionally, I have written to all of the persons with e-mail
addresses on this site, for further information. Should I get any
responses, I will post them, post haste!
http://www.ipr.or.ke/animalresource/index.html#Projects

  Regards, Crabcakes


Search Terms
============

chimpanzee model + skin healing + humans
regeneration + extracellular matrix + chimpanzees + wound
wound healing + primates
regeneration + wound repair  + chimpanzees
Pongidae + wound healing
Pan troglodytes + wound healing
Integumentary system + chimpanzee
epidermal cells + primates
epidermal cells + chimpanzees
neoplastic cells + chimpanzees
telomerase + chimpanzee
matrix molecules + healing + chimpanzee
scar formation + chimpanzees
scar formation + non-human primates
elastin + chimpanzee skin
Montagna + chimpanzee + cutaneous
primatologist + William Montagna
Wound + chimpanzee + William Montagna
wound healing factors + Chimpanzees
keratinocytes + chimpanzee + cutaneous healing
epidermal keratinocytes + chimpanzees
PDGF + chimpanzees
Follistatin + chimpanzee 
Follistatin + primates
Primatology portals
Veterinary portals
fibroblasts + chimpanzee skin
chimpanzees + tissue healing

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 06 Apr 2006 05:50 PDT
Dear Crabcakes, 

                First and foremost, let me thank you again. From my
experience reading about chimps and humans, I'm in a position to
appreciate the quality and depth of your efforts. Right now I have to
take care of other things here, but in the weekend I will read it all
in detail. Oddly enough, in one of the few less reliable of your
sources - as you were aware ("some unscientific stuff") - I see the
claim that that " fat layer prevents wounds to our skin from healing
as
easily as wounds to primate skin;". It is a pity that that text as a
whole sounds non-professional (I haven't visited the link, just read
what you quoted). However, its author - no matter how unqualified -
must have read it somewhere(most of the other things he says are
correct). I also see a reference to an old source, Medawar 1955, that
may be useful. There may have been more than one Medawar, but the
Medawar I remember was a respected Biologist in London in the fifties
and sixties. I have to leave now,  will write again. Best regards,
Wayworn

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 07 Apr 2006 05:57 PDT
Dear Crabcakes,
                   
                You have done a fine job. Some of the things you have
sent are new to me. As a matter of curiosity, I don't think the
Montagna giving an interview on BigFoot is William Montagna; doesn't
go with his profile. W. Montagna is truly an expert on primate skin,
but I'm afraid he has concentrated his work on tissue for lab exam,
not on living animals. So, surprisingly, he may not know about WH
rate! Jablonski seems to know all about pigmentation but she may also
have nothing to say about WH rate. Several items that you have found
deal with genetics and physiology and molecular biology of healing and
some of them are interesting to me.

         I believe that chimps are faster at cutaneous WH, but, as you
have seen, it is not easy to find a reliable source. The difference in
rate may relate to our fat layer, which is exactly what that vague and
unreliable source says! ( Too bad it is a creationist site!). The
reference to Medawar (I think that is the correct spelling) might be
something but it is so old and vague.

        It was very kind of you to write emails to those people. Has
anybody answered?

        Now, how could we possibly proceed? I suggest that you send me
what you have as it is. I will accept it and give a five star rating.
Before that, however, you could tell me sincerely if you feel that you
still have a chance to get there. I could ask a second question, like,
for instance, Primate and Human Skin Differences. Would that question
be given to you for sure? If so,  you could go on searching. In case
you do find my answer it will be well worth the second fee(equal to
the first of course). In case you don't, I would be dismissed from
paying. YOu could answer this Clarification by means of a
Clarification request. Whatever you decide will be ok for me, and of
course  won't change my decison to accept your answer. I don't see any
irregularity in my suggestion, but I apologise if it goes against any
Google regulation. I now realize I'd have to find a new nickname for
my second question(or wouldn' I?) Maybe Waywornwanderer if it is
acceptable. Best regards, Wayworn

Request for Question Clarification by crabcakes-ga on 07 Apr 2006 09:05 PDT
Good morning Wayworn,

  It IS morning for me, at least! I am on my way out of town. Let me
consider your clarification tomorrow, and I will respond. IN case you
ask a second quetion, there is no need to come up with a second name!
You have already opened an account at Google Answers. Simply log in
and ask a second question!

  After reading your clarification, I checked my e-mail to find a
brief response from the Primate Center. The e-mail stated that that my
e-mail was just read that he and will respond later! I will post,
tomorrow, any response I get!

  When I arrive at my destination, I shall continue researching your
answer. There MAY be a tidbit out there that I have not found, but I'm
having difficulty finding it! From what I have found so far, your
conclusion that chimpanzee skin heals faster seems logical! (I also
wonder, when I come up empty handed, if the documentary said "This
chimp will heal fast" , as in the chimp was healthy, and the wound was
clean, as opposed to meaning that chimps heal faster than humans.)

  Another note - Google Researchers do not have access to special
sources. Even if we were to have access to subscription databases, we
are prohibited from using them, as the customer is to have access to
our sources.

  (Out of curiosity, what DO you do?)

  Until tomorrow - Sincerely, Crabcakes

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 07 Apr 2006 11:22 PDT
Good afternoon Crabcakes, (it is afternoon for me here).  

                Thanks for teaching me that I won't have to change my
name on a second visit. Will I be allowed to address it to you
(through Google, like "a question to Crabcakes?", if you decide to
take the risk of going on?

                "I also wonder, when I come up empty handed, if the
documentary said "This chimp will heal fast" , as in the chimp was
healthy, and the wound was clean, as opposed to meaning that chimps
heal faster than humans.)"

                 You are a bright w/m, Crabcakes. Touché! It could
have been that way, like a wishful hearing by me. Remember, though,
that I mentioned two films. And they were both emphatic. I can't
remember the words but it did sound like "These animals heal very
fast." And there was the Vet professor I asked about it. He said " I'd
say you are right but I'm not sure; dogs and cats..."
           And also, I add now, a few weeks ago I asked two visiting
primatologists - simultaneously, they were together - at the
university here. The younger of them said " I think so, I remember a
chimp that got a severe wound to his head and it was amazing how
quickly it healed." And the other, more senior, pondered "I woundn't
be so sure of the difference; besides he needs it for a fact".

          You can see now that I teach at a university. From the way I
write, you must have guessed that I'm not a native speaker of English,
and from the timing, that I'm not in the USA. I'm a part timer, the
university is like a hobby for me (take hobby in its good meaning,
something one is really interested in), and I have a business of my
own as my major activity.

                                     Sincerely, Wayworn

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 08 Apr 2006 14:13 PDT
Hi Crabcakes,
     "Another note - Google Researchers do not have access to special
sources. Even if we were to have access to subscription databases, we
are prohibited from using them, as the customer is to have access to
our sources."
 
    I had not thought of that; it makes sense if one sees that it
could be a way of bypassing the subscription fees. As a professor, I
have access (provided by the university) to a lot of databases; also,
I would readily purchase an online paper if I had a hint that it has
my answer. The problem is that searching is extremely time consuming -
look at me, telling you about that! - and I have to take care of
timesharing on my chronically  critical agenda. That's why I decided
to come to Google Answers.
    Have a nice weekend! Wayworn

Request for Question Clarification by crabcakes-ga on 09 Apr 2006 22:42 PDT
Hello again Wayworn,

    Not once did I suspect you were NOT a native English speaker! My
daughter, (also a university professor)asked if you meant that you
spoke/wrote so much better than most native English speakers, that it
was obvious you were not from the US!

  I have dug around further, to find virtually nothing. WHat I found is here:

"The biological response to tissue injury in higher organisms falls
into two main categories: wound repair and regeneration " "In adult
mammals, the form of healing seen most often is wound repair or tissue
regeneration, accomplished by the replacement of mature cells through
cell proliferation (2) or the replenishment of cells, but not organs,
from immature stem cells (3-5). There are, however, several examples
of epimorphic regeneration that exist in mammals. These include the
replacement of antlers (6) and the closure of ear holes, originally
described in the rabbit (7, 8), where a through-and-through hole
placed in the ear is healed to completely normal tissue."
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/20/11792


"Symmetric pairs of standardized excisions were performed on either
side of the forehead of six primates. The half foreheads were
randomized to the botulinum toxin A treatment side versus the placebo
injection side. A panel of three blinded facial surgeons assessed the
cosmetic appearance of the mature scars 3 months postoperatively. The
wounds that had been immobilized with botulinum toxin A were rated as
significantly better in appearance than the control wounds (p < 0.01).
Histologic examination confirmed that all scars were mature."
http://www.plasreconsurg.com/pt/re/prs/abstract.00006534-200005000-00005.htm;jsessionid=E5caE8pIdpOJiLIB0a2ZkmMZikrQ9Itdc66WzSBKSCtHCrZQjhD9!-2044578995!-949856145!9001!-1


Regional expression of the platelet-derived growth factor and its
receptors in a primate graft model of vessel wall assembly.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=293606&tools=bot


Epidermal growth factor receptor distribution in burn wounds.
Implications for growth factor-mediated repair.
http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=443395

Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences (CMLS)
Publisher: Birkhäuser Basel
ISSN: 1420-682X (Paper) 1420-9071 (Online)
DOI: 10.1007/BF02004537
Issue:  Volume 41, Number 3
Date:  March 1985 
"Summary  Two African species of Aspilia (Asteraceae), which are used
medicinally by man and which are eaten by wild chimpanzees in an
unusual manner, were found to contain the potent antibiotic
thiarubrine A as a major leaf phytochemical. Its presence in leaf
material strengthens the view that the feeding behavior of wild
chimpanzees is related to special physiological or pharmacological
effects on the animals." From Google's snippet: "This unusual feeding
behavior by chimpanzees suggested to Wrangham and Nishida ..."
achilleaefolia which contain thiarubrine A to treat wound infections and sores ... 
http://www.springerlink.com/(kllb2ki0pddypj55madwsf30)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,51,54;journal,276,745;linkingpublicationresults,1:101193,1


You may find this book interesting, though it looks unlikely it
contains your answer!
Chimpanzee Material Culture: Implications for Human Evolution
by William C. McGrew 
ISBN: 0521423716 - Cambridge University Press
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gu7-DjJ5FbQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&sig=DNjJELp3Ad4XVcojgYLFibwwjqQ&dq=wound+%2B+chimpanzees&prev=http://scholar.google.com/scholar%3Fq%3Dwound%2B%252B%2Bchimpanzees%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Dactive%26sa%3DG


This search, using these terms : "W. Montagna 1969 Healing of skin
wounds in primates"  lead me to a promising looking page, but the
reports all seem to involve murine and lizard models.
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%20W.%20Montagna%201969%20Healing%20of%20skin%20wounds%20in%20primates.&hl=en&lr=&safe=active&oi=scholart


"... The primates have long hairs covering most ... Logically then,
bolstering the skin?s barrier ... Dressings Vapor permeable Healing
wounds Vapor impermeable Keloids ... "
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mksg/exd/2002/00000011/00000002/art00008

NCBI registration is free, allowing access to many papers:
Stress decreases, while central nucleus amygdala lesions increase,
IL-8 and MIP-1alpha gene expression during tissue healing in non-human
primates.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16574374&query_hl=7&itool=pubmed_docsum


I did find a study on dolphin would healing!
http://www.library.unsw.edu.au/~thesis/adt-NUN/uploads/approved/adt-NUN20030128.113021/public/02whole.pdf


  Since you asked in a previous clarification, you may request further
research from me, by entering "For Crabcakes" in the topic line. SInce
I was unable to come up with your exact answer, ar eyou sure though,
that you would want to have me do further research? I'm happy to do
so, should you ask. You mentioned earlier that this is my job- yes it
is, and I appreciate that. Google Researchers are contract employees,
and earn 75% of the fee the customer offers. This is my primary source
of income, as it is for many other researchers. I very  much enjoy
researching, especially for cutomers such as yourself, who can clarify
what they are seeking, and provide interesting "conversationl"
exchanges!

  If you feel the research provided on this question does not merit
the fee, then you may ask another question, with a lesser fee, and I
can post all the research I have done there.

  I have yet to receive a follow-up e-mail from the primate center,
but I will post it, post haste, if and when I do!

  Sincerely, Crabcakes

Clarification of Question by wayworn-ga on 10 Apr 2006 05:44 PDT
What a charming daughter you have, Crabcakes! She reminded me of
Shaw's Pygmalion - My fair lady - when the spy comes to the conclusion
that Miss Doolittle is...Hungarian. I am Brazilian and I do make my
blunders, as I have never lived in an English speaking environment.
Mostly, having learned it the hard way, word by word, I don't feel the
language as a native speaker does.

 Now, let's do the following, please. I ask you to send me what you
have found as an Answer. As I told you before, some of the things are
new and interesting to me, so I won't be simply rewarding your effort,
which would be fair enough anyway.

 With the second question we will discuss what can be done next if anything. 

                              Sincerely, Wayworn
Answer  
Subject: Re: Wound healing
Answered By: crabcakes-ga on 10 Apr 2006 09:30 PDT
Rated:5 out of 5 stars
 
Estimado Mestrado Doutorado,

  Its true, to speak another language well, one must have "gracia", in
Spanish, and I believe, in Portugeuse it's "ter graça"!

  Thank you for accepting the research I have done. I've very much
enjoyed this work and "chatting with you!

  I'll repost all the research here, in one place, for convenience -
with the understanding that I will post any e-mail information I
receive, including writing to other primatologists.

 You may already be aware of this, but Google Scholar, allows one to
search for scholarly topics, without wading through extraneous "stuff"

Find Google Scholar here:
http://scholar.google.com/

Google's University Seacrh may be useful to you too:
://www.google.com/options/universities.html

Try going to Google Alerts    ://www.google.com/alerts   and enter
your search terms. Whenever Google locates a new article on , for
example, Chimoanzee wound healing", you will receive an e-mail!

  Atentamente, Crabcakes




 If this is the Montagna to which you refer, he is also interested
in researching Bigfoot/Sasquach!

"While here the BBC filmed Roger Patterson at HQ, and then shot
several hours of a discussion between Dr. John Napier and the writer
(Ivan Sanderson) with visuals in the form of plaster casts of the
footprints of Bigfoot. Later, they ran an hour on Dr. Joe Wraight in
Washington, D. C., then flew to Denver to interview Professor George
A. Agogino; then on to Dr. Montagna, Head of the Oregon Primate
Center; and ended up with interviews with several persons, of all ages
and walks of life, on the Coast who had told Roger that they had
encountered Bigfoot at close range. It will take two to three months
to edit this film but it will then be aired in Europe, and LIFE
INTERNATIONAL have opted to publish an article on the story
simultaneously."
http://americanbigfootsocietyclearinghouse.blogspot.com/2006_02_03_americanbigfootsocietyclearinghouse_archive.html


   ?Jablonski, now chairman of the anthropology department at the
California Academy of Sciences, begins by assuming that our earliest
ancestors had fair skin just like chimpanzees, our closest biological
relatives. Between 4.5 million and 2 million years ago, early humans
moved from the rain forest and onto the East African savanna. Once on
the savanna, they not only had to cope with more exposure to the sun,
but they also had to work harder to gather food. Mammalian brains are
particularly vulnerable to overheating: A change of only five or six
degrees can cause a heatstroke. So our ancestors had to develop a
better cooling system.

The answer was sweat, which dissipates heat through evaporation. Early
humans probably had few sweat glands, like chimpanzees, and those were
mainly located on the palms of their hands and the bottoms of their
feet. Occasionally, however, individuals were born with more glands
than usual. The more they could sweat, the longer they could forage
before the heat forced them back into the shade. The more they could
forage, the better their chances of having healthy offspring and of
passing on their sweat glands to future generations.

A million years of natural selection later, each human has about 2
million sweat glands spread across his or her body. Human skin, being
less hairy than chimpanzee skin, "dries much quicker," says Adrienne
Zihlman, an anthropologist at the University of California at Santa
Cruz. "Just think how after a bath it takes much longer for wet hair
to dry."

?Hairless skin, however, is particularly vulnerable to damage from
sunlight. Scientists long assumed that humans evolved melanin, the
main determinant of skin color, to absorb or disperse ultraviolet
light. But what is it about ultraviolet light that melanin protects
against? Some researchers pointed to the threat of skin cancer. But
cancer usually develops late in life, after a person has already
reproduced. Others suggested that sunburned nipples would have
hampered breast-feeding. But a slight tan is enough to protect mothers
against that problem.?
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/text_pop/l_073_04.html


   ?Wound healing studies have been performed on a wide variety of
species, and although differences in rates of healing have been
generally acknowledged the dogma has developed that wound healing is a
more or less homogeneous process across species lines. Recently,
however, differences in wound healing have been discovered even in
closely related animals. Literature and clinical impression indicate
that the cat seems to be predisposed to certain cutaneous wound
healing problems that are seen less frequently in the dog. Recent
investigations have examined differences in wound healing between the
dog and cat, with the goal of improving the clinical outcome of wound
healing problems in the cat. Testing methods and clinical applications
of findings are presented.?
http://www.iknowledgenow.com/search.cfm?keywordlist=Dogs


   ?On at least two occasions he is factually incorrect. For example
on 'skin-bonded fat deposits' Moore dismisses the table as wrong,
suggesting that our fat deposits are like other primates. Montagna
(1985:p14) wrote "...human skin acquired a hypodermal fatty layer
(panniculus adiposus) which is considerably thicker than that found in
other primates, or mammals for that matter." And Moore's claim that
hymen are only found 'only in fin whales' among the aquatics is
directly contradicted by Fichtelius (1991).?

?William Montagna, arguably the world's leading expert in mammalian
skin,  writing in the Journal of Human Evolution in 1985 completely
contradicts Moore's claim. He writes "Together with the loss of a
furry cover, human skin acquired a hypodermal fatty layer (panniculus
adiposus) which is considerably thicker than that found in other
primates, or mammals for that matter." (Montagna 1985:p14).
It seems that here it is Moore, not the infamous AAT leaflet, which is
just plain wrong.?
http://www.riverapes.com/AAH/Arguments/JimMoore/Characteristics.htm


   ?A subterminal satellite located adjacent to telomeres in
chimpanzees is absent from the human genome
Nicola J. Royle1, 2, Duncan M. Baird1 & Alec J. Jeffreys1
  1Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, University Road,
Leicester LE1 7RH, United Kingdom
One of the significant unresolved differences between the karyotypes
of humans and African apes is the presence of positively staining
G?bands at the ends of many chromosome arms in the chimpanzee and
gorilla but absent from human chromosomes. Using a telomere anchored
PCR strategy, we have isolated DNA from a subterminal satellite,
composed of a 32 basepair A?T rich repeat, from the chimpanzee genome
that hybridizes to all the additional terminal bands and at two
interstitial sites. The satellite is more abundant in gorillas and is
not detected in humans or orang?utans. Furthermore, there is no
similarity between other chimpanzee telomere?junction clones and human
subterminal sequences, and therefore the organization of sequences
adjacent to telomeres is very different between these closely related
primates.?
http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v6/n1/abs/ng0194-52.html;jsessionid=57771F350E263B6C53E5C73C3EAC4633


   ?Sequences from higher primates orthologous to the human Xp/Yp
telomere junction region reveal gross rearrangements and high levels
of divergence?
?This divergence is similar to that observed between the human Xp/Yp
telomere-adjacent haplotypes. The high sequence divergence and
evidence of gross rearrangements indicate that the Xp/Yp telomeric
region has evolved faster than the rest of the genome.?

?These data suggest an ancestral structure for the Xp/Yp telomere
junction region of the higher primates (Fig. 5 ). They also suggest
that the terminal sequences of the great ape chromosomes are
relatively transient, such that subterminal sequence organisation is
unique to a lineage. This dynamism may reflect the ability of
telomerase to heal broken chromosomes, resulting in the truncation of
the chromosome and repositioning of the telomere, as seen for example
in the human and possibly the orang-utan orL structure. However, the
presence of subterminal satellite and structures other than a telomere
in the chimpanzee and the gorilla indicates that the dynamics of
subterminal sequences have also influenced the relative position of
the Xp/Yp telomere.?
http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/6/13/2291#top



   ?Comparison of mammalian genomes revealed evolutionary conservation
of the VDRE in a short interspersed nuclear element or SINE in the
CAMP promoter of primates that was absent in the mouse, rat, and
canine genomes. Our findings reveal a novel activity of
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and the VDR in regulation of primate innate
immunity.? Gombart, A. F., Borregaard, N., Koeffler, H. P. Human
cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) gene is a direct target of
the vitamin D receptor and is strongly up-regulated in myeloid cells
by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin
D3. FASEB J. 19, 1067?1077 (2005)?

?We showed that induction occurs in the cells of the bone marrow.
Moreover, we discovered that the induction of CAMP by vitamin D3 does
not occur in mice. In fact, it appears that this mechanism is
conserved in primates (humans and chimpanzees) and not in other
mammals as suggested by the absence of the VDRE in the murine, rat,
and canine CAMP promoters. The VDRE is present in a SINE
element of the Alu-Sx subfamily. These elements can retrotranspose
from a progenitor element to other locations in the genome during
evolution. It would appear that this event occurred in a primate
progenitor.

Whether this element is conserved in all primates (other than humans
and chimpanzees), as well as in New World and Old World monkeys, has
not been determined?

?Boosting CAMP/hCAP18 levels potentially could protect against this
condition after surgery and speed wound healing.?
http://www.biochem.wisc.edu/courses/biochem911/pdfs/Gombart_et_al.pdf


   ?Cutaneous wound healing is a complex process encompassing a number
of overlapping events that include leukocyte recruitment, matrix
deposition, epithelialization, and ultimately resolution of
inflammation with the formation of a mature scar. Impaired age-related
wound healing states ? involving both acute wounds that fail to heal
and chronic ulcers ? are characterized by excessive leukocytosis and
subsequently enhanced proteolytic degradation of matrix constituents?

?Recent reports suggest that both gonadal androgens and adrenal sex
steroid precursors in primates may act not only through the AR but
also via the estrogen receptor. Our findings are in keeping with
gonadal androgens acting specifically through the AR to reduce local
tissue inflammation and modulate wound repair. Since TNF-? activates
NF-?B, which in turn induces gene expression of a plethora of
proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-? itself, we investigated the
activity of NF-?B in wound tissue nuclear extracts from control and
flutamide-treated male mice. EMSA showed NF-?B activity to be strongly
increased in day 3 wound tissue compared with normal skin; activation
was suppressed by flutamide treatment (Figure 6c). Such data suggest a
potential role for the AR in mediating the positive feedback loop that
exists between TNF-? and NF-?B activity.?
http://www.pubmedcentral.com/articlerender.fcgi?artid=151108


   ?The present study tested the effects of local injection of IL-1
and TNF soluble receptors on a periodontal wound-healing model in
nonhuman primates. In this model, periodontal lesions were developed
for 16 wk, followed by open flap surgery. Starting at the time of
surgery, groups of animals received localized injections of both
soluble cytokine receptors or else PBS three times per week for 3, 14,
or 35 days. Periodontal wound healing was analyzed for each group at
the end of the treatment regimen. Fourteen days after surgery, a
significant decrease was observed between the animals treated with
soluble receptors and the untreated group with respect to recruitment
of inflammatory cells in deep gingival connective tissue. Concurrent
apoptosis of inflammatory cells in those tissues increased
significantly in treated animals compared with untreated animals.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15322216&dopt=Abstract


   ?Animal Models:  Chimpanzees, other primates, guinea pigs, cats,   
  hamsters, mice, and rats have been successfully infected with human
biopsy  material.  Changes in the central nervous system are similar
in guinea pigs to those seen in man and involve vacuolization in the
neurons and astrocytes.
http://netvet.wustl.edu/species/guinea/gpmodel.txt


   ?It has been reported that the telomere length in peripheral blood
lymphocytes of the higher primates P. troglodytes (chimpanzee) and
Gorilla gorilla (gorilla) varies from 15 to 20 kb [21]. It was thus
claimed that the shorter telomeres of humans may be unique among
primates [22]. However, there are currently no data about replicative
aging and telomere biology in nonhuman primates.

Short telomeres limit the replicative capacity of all anthropoid
species, and elongation and maintenance of telomeres by hTERT were
accompanied by extension of the in vitro life span in all nonhuman
primate fibroblasts. Not only was hTERT able to interact with the
integral RNA component of other primates, including the lemur, it was
also able to interact with the other cofactors in primates needed for
recruiting to and acting on the end of telomeres. Given the large
scatter reported in telomere length and cultured life span among
different human donors, comparing the in vitro life span of single
fibroblast cultures to the life expectancy of each species is not
justified.?
http://www.swmed.edu/home_pages/cellbio/shay-wright/publications/telomerebiology.pdf



   ?The earliest members of the hominid lineage probably had a mostly
unpigmented or lightly pigmented integument covered with dark black
hair, similar to that of the modern chimpanzee. The evolution of a
naked, darkly pigmented integument occurred early in the evolution of
the genus Homo. A dark epidermis protected sweat glands from
UV-induced injury, thus insuring the integrity of somatic
thermoregulation. Of greater significance to individual reproductive
success was that highly melanized skin protected against UV-induced
photolysis of folate (Branda &Eaton, 1978, Science201, 625?626;
Jablonski, 1992, Proc. Australas. Soc. Hum. Biol.5,455?462, 1999, Med.
Hypotheses52, 581?582), a metabolite essential for normal development
of the embryonic neural tube (Bower & Stanley, 1989, The Medical
Journal of Australia150, 613?619; Medical Research Council Vitamin
Research Group, 1991, The Lancet338, 31?37) and spermatogenesis
(Cosentino et al., 1990, Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.87, 1431?1435;
Mathur et al., 1977, Fertility Sterility28, 1356?1360).

   As hominids migrated outside of the tropics, varying degrees of
depigmentation evolved in order to permit UVB-induced synthesis of
previtamin D3. The lighter color of female skin may be required to
permit synthesis of the relatively higher amounts of vitamin
D3necessary during pregnancy and lactation.
Skin coloration in humans is adaptive and labile. Skin pigmentation
levels have changed more than once in human evolution. Because of
this, skin coloration is of no value in determining phylogenetic
relationships among modern human groups.?
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://ap/hu/2000/00000039/00000001/art00403&unc=


   ?Predators will limp and are less stoical. When in pain, such
animals will rest a lot and lick wounds.?
http://www.oie.int/eng/publicat/rt/2402/PDF/jordan515-528.pdf



   ?Normal chimpanzees can vary considerably in size. Adults can weigh
anywhere from 20 to 80 kilograms. Their skin is also quite different
from ours. Their sebaceous glands (which function to ?waterproof? the
skin) are not as well developed, and only rarely contain glycogen
granules, which are abundant in all human sebaceous glands. Apocrine
sweat glands, which are found only in the underarm and genital area of
humans, are distributed over most of the body of chimps. Humans lack
sinus hair follicles (?whiskers?), which are present in the brow, lips
and chin of chimps.28

These dramatic differences highlight the problems with using
chimpanzees as surrogates for human diseases. Not only is data from
chimpanzees misleading, but their continued use aggravates their
dwindling numbers.?
http://www.pcrm.org/resch/anexp/chimps.html


  ?Compare one?s body to that of a chimpanzee?there are many similarities. Look
for example, at its arms or legs, which have rather different proportion from our
own, but are basically the same. If we look at the internal organs
there is not much to distinguish a chimpanzee?s heart or liver from
our own. Even if we examined the cells in these organs, we will again
find that they are very similar to ours. Yet we are different, very
different from chimpanzees?We posses no cell types that the chimpanzee
does not, nor does the chimpanzee have any cells that we do not have.
The difference between us and the chimpanzee lies in the spatial
organization of the cells.6?
http://www.navs.org/site/DocServer/Medical_Research_detail.pdf?docID=401




   ?Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) is a member of the fibroblast
growth factor family. Portions of the gene encoding KGF were amplified
during primate evolution and are present in multiple nonprocessed
copies in the human genome. Nucleotide analysis of a representative
sampling of these KGF-like sequences indicated that they were at least
95% identical to corresponding regions of the KGF gene. To localize
these sequences to specific chromosomal sites in human and higher
primates, we used fluorescence in situ hybridization. In human, using
a cosmid probe encoding KGF exon 1, we assigned the location of the
KGF gene to chromosome 15q15-21.1. In addition, copies of KGF-like
sequences hybridizing only with a cosmid probe encoding exons 2 and 3
were localized to dispersed sites on chromosome 2q21, 9p11, 9q12-13,
18p11, 18q11, 21q11, and 21q21.1.


   The distribution of KGF-like sequences suggests a role for alphoid
DNA in their amplification and dispersion. In chimpanzee, KGF-like
sequences were observed at five chromosomal sites, which were each
homologous to sites in human, while in gorilla, a subset of four of
these homologous sites was identified; in orangutan two sites were
identified, while gibbon exhibited only a single site.?
http://www.snps3d.org/search/?q=geneid:2252&hLight=pressure,&limitShow=10



   ?A potential reason for that difference is a segment of human DNA
called a pseudogene. The actual gene, known as ?hHaA, makes a keratin
protein in chimps and gorillas. Although the same DNA sequence is
preserved in humans, human cells don't use it to make the protein.
That's why scientists call it a pseudogene.
"I don't have any sense that this necessarily is a clue," Neufeld
says. "It's just the only article I was able to find in the literature
that distinguished human hair from chimpanzee or gorilla hair, in
terms of molecular biology and biochemical makeup."
http://mednews.wustl.edu/tips/page/normal/4405.html


In some animal models, scientists have found that hair follicle stem
cells aid in skin healing!
?Wounds, including skin ulcers and other dermatological problems
associated with diabetes, circulatory problems, and other diseases,
are a growing medical problem in the United States, notes senior
author George Cotsarelis, MD, Associate Professor of Dermatology.
Previous work by the Penn research team had outlined the hair-growth
process to show that stem cells in the hair follicle "bulge" area
generate new lower hair follicles, which in turn, generate new hair.
Their latest finding?that these same stem cells play a key role in
initiating wound healing?will help lay the foundation for designing
more effective wound-healing strategies.?
http://www.stemcellresearchfoundation.org/WhatsNew/December_2005.htm#1

http://www.theallineed.com/biology/06012504.htm



   ?Epidermal melanin has important evolutionary and physiological
implications, particularly for unclothed humans. Thus high melanin
content (racial pigmentation) protects the skin against ultraviolet
(UV)-induced skin damage through its optical and chemical filtering
properties (8). Indeed, skin pigment levels and anthropological origin
are closely associated, with higher pigment amounts in regions of
lower latitude and higher UV radiation levels. However, this
connection may only be a recent human adaptation since early hominids
may have possessed dark, dense, terminal body hair. A closely related
primate, the chimpanzee, similar to most other nonhuman primates,
exhibits white or lightly pigmented epidermis (591). Interestingly,
chimpanzees have active melanocytes only in the epidermis of those
areas directly exposed to UV radiation, e.g., face and friction
surfaces?
http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/84/4/1155


   ?Thank goodness for N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc). As yet, a
variation in this single sugar is the only consequence that
researchers are able to ascribe directly to the one to two per cent
difference in genomes that distinguishes us humans from one of our
closest evolutionary relatives, chimpanzees. What makes Neu5Gc so
special in evolutionary terms is that - unlike chimps and all other
mammals - we humans do not possess an active gene that encodes the
enzyme responsible for producing it. Unlike in all other mammals,
therefore, this sugar is totally absent from human brains. This simple
change in brain chemistry, some scientists are now speculating, may
explain why we humans went on to develop the higher intelligence that
supposedly separates us from all 'lower' species. Had evolution taken
a different course, who knows - maybe Planet of the apes might not
seem so far-fetched after all.?

?Biological recognition in this way is incredibly subtle, Dell says.
The best example involves a cluster of sugars called sialyl Lewis x
(sLex) that bind to a trio of proteins called selectins (E, L and P).
Recognition in this case typically occurs when body tissues are
damaged or injured in some way. When damage occurs, selectins appear
on the surfaces of cells lining nearby blood vessels. There they
recognise and bind to sLex on the surface of white blood cells or
leukocytes in the circulating bloodstream, thereby recruiting these
defensive cells to fight infection at the site of injury.?

?THP is just one more piece in the jigsaw puzzle of how human life
arguably begins. Gradually, researchers are beginning to assemble the
bigger picture. But progress may be about to accelerate. With the
unravelling of the human genome, researchers are already learning more
about the structures of the key transferase enzymes involved in
glycoprotein synthesis. In a different context, this has also been
exploited in the recent headline-making news about growing human
organs successfully in pigs. The trick here is to knock out or
suppress the activity of the transferase a-1,3-galactosyl (or
alpha-gal) that adds to the surface of pig cells. This is a sugar that
human tissues recognise as foreign and would attempt to reject.

Evolution was apparently once again responsible for the loss of this
particular enzyme in humans and Old World primates. Sugars, in all
their various guises, it seems may have a bigger part to play in all
aspects of life than anyone might previously have suspected. Exactly
what role the selectins may have in this story still remains to be
seen.?
http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/ezine/2002/odriscoll_jul02.htm



   The entire article from which this paragraph is abstracted costs $39 USD
?In human airways, ?-defensins function in the elimination of various
pathogens. They have been identified in a wide range of species. Here
we report the identification and expression of chimpanzee ?-defensin-1
(cBD1), which is a homolog of human ?-defensin-1, in chimpanzee
airways and skin. The cBD1 cDNA sequence differs by only one
synonymous nucleotide substitution compared to the human cDNA
sequence. In situ hybridization revealed that in lung tissue beside
alveolar macrophages also airway epithelial cells, endothelial cells
and type II pneumocytes express cBD1 mRNA. In skin, cBD1 mRNA was
expressed in keratinocytes and endothelial cells. Together, these
results show similarity in structure and expression pattern and
perhaps in function.?
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0684.2000.290502.x


?In mammals, wound healing is a complex process which starts when a
clot forms over the injury. Gradually, cells "migrate" into the clot
to close the wound.  However, in the mice lacking the gene, the skin
cells needed to close the wound appeared to be produced, but instead
of heading into the clot, they "bunched up" at the edges of the wound.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2956762.stm


   ?Isik also discovered that only the bone marrow-derived cells were
able to make a particular type of collagen found not just in healed
wounds, but in skin all over the body. This led him to conclude that
cells from bone marrow help form the tough, yet expandable, matrix of
skin. Isik now wonders whether diseases that interfere with wound
healing, such as diabetes, do so because they affect bone marrow
cells. In time, this line of research may reveal targets for drugs to
speed wound healing.?
http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:7HKTkWv0IVIJ:publications.nigms.nih.gov/findings/mar05/findings_mar05.pdf+matrix+molecules+%2B+healing+%2B+chimpanzee&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=14


   ?"When primate skin heals, the ridges curl inward toward the
wound," he said. "Someone would have to know a real lot about biology
and dermatoglyphics to know that. Anybody that smart wouldn't be
messing with fakes."? Chilcutt developed an expertise in primate skin
patterns as an offshoot of his ongoing study of the human fingerprint.
His archive of more than 1,000 ape-skin impressions - prints he
collected from tranquilized orangutans, chimpanzees and gorillas - is
the largest such collection in the world.

When Chilcutt visited Meldrum's lab, it seemed his hunch would turn
out to be accurate. He quickly determined that the ridges he found in
the first track Meldrum gave him were from a human finger.:
http://www.bfro.net/GDB/show_article.asp?id=53



   ?Human skin also differs from that of primates in respect of its
greater thickness and elasticity, a radical transformation of the skin
glands, and the way it is connected to a layer of fibrous tissue and a
fat layer, described by John Napier as "one of humankind?s greatest
unsung hallmarks" and found elsewhere only in aquatic species. William
Montagna after years of exhaustive research into all aspects of
primate skin, reported in 1972 that the problem of human nakedness
continued to defy solution.?
http://users.ugent.be/~mvaneech/Morgan.html


   ?Quantitative comparisons by a sensitive enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay indicated that certain primate involucrins have a
higher density of antigenic determinants than the human protein,
whereas others lack some determinant(s).
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=299341



   ?The presence of phylogenetically distinct and functionally and
structurally differing sweat glands within humans and several closely
related species indicate that either the distribution of eccrine
glands (and associated reduction of apocrine glands throughout the
body) can be traced back to the common ancestor of chimpanzees,
gorillas, and humans, that it can be traced back to the common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans with a parallel development in
Gorilla (or common ancestry for humans and gorillas with separate
origin in Pan depending on the phylogenetic tree used), or that it has
a separate origin in all three lineages. Through parsimony, the least
likely scenario would be complete independent formation of the eccrine
distribution, but it should be noted that in a species of tree shrew,
an eccrine system has developed independently; and therefore
independent origin is not at all impossible. Proceeding to a more
parsimonious answer, the shared derived state of two lineages and the
independent origin in one species, it is unclear if this is - in
reality - more likely than complete three-way independent origin, as
if the selective pressures under whose aegis this trait would develop
was common to all lineages and developed independently in at least two
lineages within a relatively short evolutionary timeframe, it may be
no more likely for two origins versus three, though it is more
parsimonious.

 The most parsimonious explanation is the single origin of the trait
and the shared derived status of the eccrine distribution in the three
African lineages. Parsimony leads to the most logical choice in terms
of probabilities within a sterile mathematical phylogeny, but does not
always provide the most likely scenario, which must be determined from
the whole of available evidence.?
http://www.modernhumanorigins.net/anth501.html


   You may find this Listserve interesting:
?The source is : The skin of non-human primates by William
Montagna in Am. Zoologist, 12:109-124 (1972)
re eccrine glands in primates :"One might surmise that, like
man, these animals sweat in response to heat stimulation.
However, with singular exceptions, if the glands secrete at
all, the amount is so small that it cannot be recorded.
Sometimes animals show beads of sweat on the facial
disc when under deep anesthesia, but our efforts to induce 
thermal sweating have failed. We have also largely failed to
induce sweating with sudorific drugs. In the chimpanzee,
very few, small sweat drops were recorded even after the
administration of shockingly large doses of these drugs."
"why do these glands not function when they seem to have all
the equipment for doing so?"
"It appears, then, that eccrine glands are relatively new
acquisitions in the hairy skin of primates and that only in
man do they really serve the purpose of thermoregulation."
http://unauthorised.org/anthropology/sci.anthropology.paleo/july-1995/0431.html
 



   "Cutaneous wound healing is a complex process encompassing a number
of overlapping events that include leukocyte recruitment, matrix
deposition, epithelialization, and ultimately resolution of
inflammation with the formation of a mature scar. Impaired age-related
wound healing states ? involving both acute wounds that fail to heal
and chronic ulcers ? are characterized by excessive leukocytosis and
subsequently enhanced proteolytic degradation of matrix constituents?
?One critical mediator of wound healing is the hormone estrogen, which
accelerates repair in both human and animal models.?
http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/full/110/5/615


   ?Wound healing and tissue repair is highly dependent upon the
optimal regulatory control of local and systemic hormones, sequential
release of essential cytokines, optimal load histories, and nutrient
delivery to the injured area. Following spaceflight and/or HS, a
diminished immune system response has been reported (7). Decreased
IL-1, IL-2 and TNF-? production was recorded from rat spleen cells
flown on the SLS-2 mission (5).

A decreased lymphocyte function was recorded in Russian cosmonauts
following spaceflight (1), while rhesus monkeys flown 14 days have
exhibited a decrease in IL-1 production and a decrease in IL-2
receptor expression (6) Other endocrine functions are compromised
during spaceflight and hindlimb suspension, specifically the secretion
of growth hormone (GH).

   Hindlimb unloaded rats showed a diminished secretion of
bioassayable GH, a decreased responsiveness to growth hormone
releasing factor (GRF) (2), and a decreased immunoassayable plasma GH
in intact rats (10) and decreased plasma GH concentration following
spaceflight (2). Non-human primates showed a marked suppression of GH
secretion after 14 d of flight on the BION 10 (Cosmos 2229) (3). Thus,
it is apparent that changes in immune and endocrine functions occur in
humans (astronauts and cosmonauts), non-human primates and rodents
following spaceflight and could compromise the wound healing
processes. Therefore, the primary objective of our project is to use
the rodent knee ligament injury repair model to study the impact HS
has on the wound healing processes.?
http://www.dsls.usra.edu/meetings/bio2001/pdf/068.pdf



   ?Wild chimpanzees eat several plant species claimed by traditional
healers to cure diseases. However, the behaviour leading apes to
ingest these peculiar species is not clearly understood. Some of the
items consumed by chimpanzees have low nutritional value, and there is
a growing body of evidence suggesting that health might be improved or
regulated by such ingestion. Observations concerning the diet and the
health condition of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
in the Kibale National Park (Uganda) are discussed in relation to the
ethnomedicinal utilization of plant species reviewed in literature.
Among the 163 plant parts known to be eaten by these chimpanzees, at
least 35 (21.4%) are used in traditional medicine as treatments for
intestinal parasites, skin infections, reproduction and respiratory
diseases.?

   ?Aglaia (family Meliaceae) plants are used in traditional medicine
(e.g., in Vietnam) for the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases and
allergic inflammatory disorders such as asthma. Inflammatory diseases
arise from inappropriate activation of the immune system, leading to
abnormal expression of genes encoding inflammatory cytokines and
tissue-destructive enzymes. The active compounds isolated from these
plants are derivatives of rocaglamide. In this study we show that
rocaglamides are potent immunosuppressive phytochemicals that suppress
IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-2, and IL-4 production in peripheral blood T
cells at nanomolar concentrations. We demonstrate that rocaglamides
inhibit cytokine gene expression at the transcriptional level.
http://dumenat.smbh.univ-paris13.fr/medl/05pdf/05/2005_05_tradmed2.pdf



   ?Chimps are lumped with gorillas and orangutans in the same family,
Pongidae, whereas humans are in the family Hominidae.
But a study in 2003 found that 99.4 percent of important DNA sites are
the same in chimps and humans. Other researchers have since concluded
that there are crucial differences in the genetic software of the two
species, however. Only a few months ago was the full chimp DNA
sequence unraveled.?
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10994885/from/RL.2/



   ?Since differences in wound healing between sexes appeared to be
significant in humans, we further investigated the mechanisms
underlying these responses in an animal model. Male gonads secrete a
number of factors that may influence wound repair. In addition to the
predominant hormone testosterone and small quantities of estrogen,
other factors produced by the testes have been shown to modulate wound
repair in animal models, including activin and follistatin (30-32). We
reasoned that since testosterone is produced in the most significant
quantities, coupled with the correlation in humans between delayed
healing and testosterone levels, the effects we observed after
castration were modulated by gonadal androgens. To determine the
mechanisms underlying the effects of castration, we used AR blockade
with oral administration of flutamide prior to and during the wound
healing process. Our results suggest that flutamide treatment results
in accelerated healing and dampened inflammation, mimicking the
effects of castration (Figure 6, a and b), and was associated with
reduced tissue expression of TNF-  (Figure 6c).

 Recent reports suggest that both gonadal androgens and adrenal sex
steroid precursors in primates may act not only through the AR but
also via the estrogen receptor. Our findings are in keeping with
gonadal androgens acting specifically through the AR to reduce local
tissue inflammation and modulate wound repair. Since TNF-  activates
NF- B, which in turn induces gene expression of a plethora of
proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-  itself, we investigated the
activity of NF- B in wound tissue nuclear extracts from control and
flutamide-treated male mice. EMSA showed NF- B activity to be strongly
increased in day 3 wound tissue compared with normal skin; activation
was suppressed by flutamide treatment (Figure 6c). Such data suggest a
potential role for the AR in mediating the positive feedback loop that
exists between TNF-  and NF- B activity. ?
http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/full/110/5/615


   ?Many primate species serve as surrogates in studies of human
physiology and disease, and their nutritional status is known to 
influence susceptibility and tissue responses to infective agents. The
validity of such research is open to question if the experimental
subjects have not been appropriately nourished. Likewise, the health
and reproduction of primates in zoos can be compromised to an extent
that renders the maintenance or multiplication of endangered species
impossible.?
http://library.primate.wisc.edu/collections/books/nutrient.html



   ?A new model developed by Michael Galko, a postdoctoral fellow in
the lab of biochemist Mark Krasnow at Stanford, may expedite answers.
Writing in the journal Public Library of Science Biology (August
2004), he describes a puncture-wound assay in Drosophila larvae that
shares important cellular and molecular features with vertebrate
healing. Even the authors were surprised that the broad outlines were
so similar, given the differences in tissue architecture between fruit
flies and vertebrate animals. The work has attracted enthusiastic
support among colleagues.

 According to Paul Martin of the University of Bristol in the U.K., a
leader in the field and author of more than 30 papers on the science
of wound healing, such similarities in a "genetically tractable"
organism provide a powerful tool: "It's got scabs, migratory cells and
genetics to boot."?

   ?A bare summary of wound healing in mammals goes like this: As
blood clots, the clot traps platelets and cells in a net of connective
fibers. The platelets attract immune cells to attack bacteria and
scavenge debris; keratinocytes (skin cells) creep toward the damage,
using the scab as scaffolding. Finally, fibroblasts (other skin cells)
pay out collagen fibers and provide the muscle (literally) to tug the
wound closed as migrating cells cover the site and re-form a covering
of layered skin. The puncture model in Drosophila larvae follows the
same general script, albeit with a few twists.?

?Full-thickness wounds were made in fetal rhesus monkey lips from 75
through 114 days gestation (n = 6, term = 165 days). Wounds were
harvested at 14 days postwounding and processed for histology
(hematoxylin & eosin, Masson's trichrome) as well as
immunohistochemistry (human type I or type III collagen). RESULTS:
Wounds healed with complete restoration of normal tissue architecture
in the 75-day gestation fetus. However in the 85-100 day gestation
fetuses, wounds healed with an absence of hair follicles and sebaceous
glands, but the dermal collagen pattern remained reticular and similar
to that in unwounded dermis. At 107 days, a thin scar was present in
the wound, thereby demonstrating a transition to scar formation
between 100 and 107 days gestation (early 3rd trimester) in the
non-human primate. CONCLUSIONS: In the non-human primate fetus, a
transition from scarless repair to adult-type repair with scar
formation occurs in the early third trimester. These data provide
insight into the transition process; the ontogeny of scar formation is
characterized initially by wounds healing without the presence of
epidermal appendages but with a normal reticular dermal collagen
pattern, which we term the "transition wound."?
http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/39262



   ?In considering the color of human skin in the long span of human
evolution, Jablonski and Chaplin note that there is no empirical
evidence to suggest that the human ancestors six million years ago had
a skin color different from the skin color of today's
chimpanzees?namely pale-skinned under black hair. But as humans
evolved to lose their body hair a parallel evolution permitted human
populations to turn their base skin color dark or white over a period
of less than a thousand years to adjust to the competing demands of 1)
increasing eumelanin to protect from UV that was too intense and 2)
reducing eumelanin so that enough UV would penetrate to synthesize
enough vitamin D.

 By this explanation, in the time that humans lived only in Africa,
humans had dark skin to the extent that they lived for extended
periods of time where the sunlight is intense. As some humans migrated
north, over time they developed white skin, though they retained
within the gene pool the capability to develop black skin when they
migrated to areas with intense sunlight again, such as across the
Bering Strait and south to the Equator.?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin_color



   ?Furthermore, as in man, but in contrast to rodents, chimpanzee
skin contains a very high level of melanocytes in the epidermis;
approximately 3,320+/-350 per square millimeter skin. Chimpanzee
melanosomes are long, wide, and fully melanized. In keratinocytes,
these organelles are individually dispersed in all body regions,
regardless of the degree of skin color, as is true for other mammalian
species with large melanosomes.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1211438&dopt=Abstract


?DABSKA-LIKE TUMOR IN A CHIMPANZEE (Pan Troglodytes). 
D.A. Alves1, M.F. Stidworthy2, J.M. Hamilton3, J.C.M. Lewis2, D.A.
Belote1, and M.G. Mense1. 1Armed Forces Institute of Pathology,
Washington, D.C.; 2International Zoo Veterinary Group, Keighley, West
Yorkshire, UK; and 3IDEXX Laboratories, Wetherby, West Yorkshire, UK.
In humans, the Dabska tumor (malignant endovascular papillary
angioendothelioma, papillary intralymphatic angioendothelioma) is
considered an extremely rare, low-grade malignancy that most often
affects infants and children. It shows a wide anatomic distribution,
with predilection for the skin. The medical literature suggests that
these lesions recur locally and rarely spread to lymph nodes without
systemic metastasis. Close clinical monitoring for regrowth or
metastasis is recommended. This 4 year-old male chimpanzee (Pan
troglodytes) had a rapidly appearing, approximately 75 x 50 mm in
diameter, raised, cutaneous, sparsely haired, plaque-like dermal
nodule in the mid-lumbar region of the back. Microscopically, within
the dermis, neoplastic cells variably occlude dilated lymphatics and
extend as papillary structures from the lymphatic lining. When not
visibly intravascular, the cells form nodules and nests, and
infiltrate the adjacent dermis.

 Neoplastic cells are spindled to polygonal and are supported by a
moderate fibrovascular stroma that is often centrally hyalinized.
Cells have variably distinct borders, scant to small amounts of
eosinophilic fibrillar to amorphous cytoplasm, and oval nuclei with
finely stippled chromatin and 1-2 distinct nucleoli. There is mild
anisokaryosis and mitotic figures average 1-2 per high power field.
Immunohistochemically, neoplastic cells are positive for vimentin,
CD31, CD34, Factor VIII related antigen, and S100; and negative for
kermix, keratin 903, cytokeratin 7, cytokeratin 20, epithelial
membrane antigen (EMA), Ber EP4 epithelial antigen, and Melan A. To
date, this lesion has not recurred after removal. To our knowledge,
there are no published reports of a similar primary lymphatic neoplasm
in a non-human primate.?
http://www.acvp.org/meeting/2004/2004yiawinners.php


   ?We here report on the identification of a novel human EGF-TM7
receptor, designated EMR4. Like most EGF-TM7 receptor genes, EMR4 is
localized on the short arm of chromosome 19, in close proximity to
EMR1. Remarkably, due to a one-nucleotide deletion in exon 8,
translation of human EMR4 would result in a truncated 232-amino acid
protein lacking the entire seven-span transmembrane region. This
deletion is not present in nonhuman primates, including chimpanzees,
suggesting that EMR4 became nonfunctional only after human speciation,
about five million years ago. Thus, EMR4 surprisingly accounts for a
genetic difference between humans and primates related to immunity.?
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12731063&dopt=Abstract


Edited by Montagna:
?The Arg163Gln variant is absent in the Africans studied, almost
absent in Europeans, and at a low frequency (7%) in Indians, but is at
an exceptionally high frequency (70%) in East and Southeast Asians.
The MC1R gene in common and pygmy chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutan, and
baboon was sequenced to study the evolution of MC1R. The ancestral
human MC1R sequence is identical to the human consensus protein
sequence, while MC1R varies considerably among higher primates. A
comparison of the rates of substitution in genes in the melanocortin
receptor family indicates that MC1R has evolved the fastest. In
addition, the nucleotide diversity at the MC1R locus is shown to be
several times higher than the average nucleotide diversity in human
populations, possibly due to diversifying selection.?
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/151/4/1547




   ?GENE FUNCTION - Werner et al. (1994) assessed the function of KGF
in normal and wounded skin by expression of a dominant-negative KGF
receptor (176943) in basal keratinocytes. The skin of transgenic mice
was characterized by epidermal atrophy, abnormalities in the hair
follicles, and dermal hyperthickening. Upon skin injury, inhibition of
KGF receptor signaling reduced the proliferation rate of epidermal
keratinocytes at the wound edge, resulting in substantially delayed
reepithelialization of the wound.?
http://srs.embl-heidelberg.de:8000/srs5bin/cgi-bin/wgetz?-e+%5Bomim-id:148180%5D


Articles for purchase:
======================

   You may be interested in purchasing this article. This is the Google snippet:
?? worked with chimpanzees in Africa. (continued on page 28) ... A
Scar Is Born. T. he mechanism underlying acne. scar formation is
poorly under- ...?
http://dermatology.jwatch.org/issue_pdf/JD0403.PDF


?The vital role of the skin in human natural historyBruce A. Cohn MD?  $39 USD
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-4362.1998.00575.x



?The skin of primates. XLIV. Numerical taxonomy of primate skin? $25 USD
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110487053/ABSTRACT


Purchase this article for $25 USD:
The skin of primates. XV. The skin of the chimpanzee (Pan satyrus) 
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110523742/ABSTRACT



Abstract
The epidermal melanocyte system of the chimpanzee was studied by the
combined skin-splitting DOPA, and electron microscopic techniques. It
is very similar to man. There are DOPA-positive epidermal melanocytes
in all body regions regardless of the degree of macroscopic skin
pigmentation or hirsutism. Furthermore, as in man, but in contrast to
rodents, chimpanzee skin contains a very high level of melanocytes in
the epidermis; approximately 3,320 ± 350 per square millimeter skin.

Chimpanzee melanosomes are long, wide, and fully melanized. In
keratinocytes, these organelles are individually dispersed in all body
regions, regardless of the degree of skin color, as is true for other
mammalian species with large melanosomes.

This article can be purchased for $25 USD
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110488365/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0


An unscientific bit of information:
?Apart from those skeletal differences, we don?t have primate brains
(that is an understatement!), throats (we can?t eat or drink and
breathe at the same time; they can); voices (they can make loud calls,
but we can modulate them into the tiny pieces of sound that make up
words); body covering (they all have pelts of hair from head to toe,
thick on the back and lighter on the front; we have no pelt and our
thickness pattern is reversed); we cool ourselves by sweating
profusely (they tend to pant, though some sweat lightly); we shed
tears of emotion (no other primate does); we do not regulate our salt
intake (all other primates do); we have a layer of fat of varying
thickness attached to the underside of our skin, which primates do not
have; that fat layer prevents wounds to our skin from healing as
easily as wounds to primate skin; human females have no estrus cycle,
as do all primates; but the number one difference between humans and
primates is that humans have only 46 chromosomes while all higher
primates have 48!?
http://www.lloydpye.com/A-Darwinism.htm


   ?Laboratory-based primatologists, particularly specialists in
veterinary medicine and pathology, should find that the density and
diversity of lesions on these skulls go far beyond what would be
encountered in animals under management in zoos or primate colonies.
The wounds seen in these Liberian chimpanzees are of unusual interest
because their healing has taken place in the absence of medical
treatment.?
http://www.brown.edu/Research/Primate/lpn27-4.html


   ?The Mende people of West Africa gain knowledge of herbal medicine
by observing wild chimpanzees that are sick. A forestry worker
observed a chimpanzee chew up a certain leaf and spit it onto the
affected area of skin. When he later tested it on himself, the
observer found that it was effective against skin irritations. A
similar case was recorded in the 1920s when an English woman was
travelling through Liberia and was told by an old local woman that she
had watched a female chimpanzee treat her infant's skin complaint with
some large flat leaves that she had crushed and pounded between her
fingers and applied them to the baby's infected area. The old woman
later found these leaves to have curative properties.

Although observations of self-medication in gorillas is meagre, these
great apes must also benefit from phytochemicals which inhibit certain
pathogens. In Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Ugandan gorillas share a
number of the same medicinal plants with humans. Park wardens have
noted that 35 plant species form the core diet of gorillas in this
region, and that several of them are also medicinal plants. The bark
of one of these, Dombeya quinqueseta, is used to combat diarrhoea, and
analysis has identified a mixture of fatty acids (including palmitic,
stearic, linoleic and linolenic) and phytosterols (including
beta-sitosterol). These compounds are potent antimicrobials. Other
gorilla foods from this area found to possess active medicinal
properties are Rubus rigidus and Brillantaisia kirungae. Local
medicine men watch what gorillas and other animals do when sick to
discover herbal treatments.?
http://www.berggorilla.org/english/gjournal/texte/25cousins.html


   ?Though having some similarities to that of the rhesus monkey, the
skin of the stump-tail macaque has several unique features. The
epidermis has a sparse population of active melanocytes, and there is
practically no pigmentation in the dermis. The dermis is rich in
elastic fibers, the function of which seems to be to anchor the hair
follicles and the arrectores pilorum muscles, and the superficial
blood vessels. Large numbers of eccrine and apocrine sweat glands in
the forehead and scalp are reminiscent of the axillary organ in the
Hominioidea. The very large sebaceous glands on the face and bald
forehead and scalp resemble those of man. The forehead and anterior
portion of the scalp are bald in the adult but not in juvenile
animals. In spite of an apparently rich pelage, these animals seem to
show a trend toward nakedness.?
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110523233/ABSTRACT


Since primates don?t smoke, nor are exposed to second-hand smoke?
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/04/040407082100.htm

Rapid Skin Repair
http://www.qmuseum.qld.gov.au/education/biobus/pdf/QMBiobus_RapidRepair.pdf


Estrogen and skin healing
http://www.jci.org/cgi/content/full/111/9/1309


?Modern taxonomists are not as generous as Linné in welcoming other
species into Man's lofty dominion, and the chimpanzee is now referred
to as Pan troglodytes. But Pan or Homo, there is no doubt that chimps
are humans' nearest living relatives, and that if the secrets of what
makes humanity special are ever to be disentangled, understanding why
chimps are not people, nor people chimps, is a crucial part of the
process. That, in turn, means looking at the DNA of the two species,
for it is here that the differences must originate.?
http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?story_id=4342312



There is a rather interesting Power Point presentation link on this
page, comparing the human-chimpanzee genetic divergence:
 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7055/suppinfo/nature04072.html

Genetic divergence
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7055/full/nature04072.html


Several Chimp issues:
http://blogs.lsusdebate.org/?cat=51


Integrins in wound healing
http://www.bioteach.ubc.ca/Biomedicine/WoundClosure/index.htm

Restricted distribution of integrin beta 6 mRNA in primate epithelial tissues.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8245410&dopt=Abstract

?My laboratory carries out fundamental research on the human brain.
One of our major goals is to identify the evolutionary specializations
of the human brain, which we do by comparing humans to chimpanzees and
to other nonhuman primates. We want to understand the extent to which
evolutionary expansion of the human brain was accompanied by the
addition of new areas or by the enlargement and internal
reorganization of existing areas. To this end, we carry out
comparative studies of cortical organization using immunocytochemistry
and other techiniques that are useful for mapping cortical areas and
investigating the laminar and cellular organization of cortex. We have
used these techniques to demonstrate remarkable differences in the
organization of visual cortex in humans, chimpanzees, and Old world
monkeys, and we are now exploring other regions, especially frontal
ccortex. Recently, we have begun to employ genomics techniques to
identify genes that are differentially expressed in human brains,
followed by in situ hybridization and immunocytochemical studies to
demonstrate where the genes identified by genomics are expressed in
the nervous system. These studies will enable us to better understand
the distinctive functional capacities of the human brain and its
distinctive vulnerability to disease.?
http://www.nbb.emory.edu/faculty/research.html

?4. Difficulties with wound healing (v. Madawar 1955) No trend
to that.
5. Outer surface of epidermis criss-crossed with congenital
wrinkles visible under microscope. No trend to that (In 
primates but cf. elephant and see the same thing writ large)
6. Human skin displays sexual dimorphism -women's more
supple, fatty, and turgid. No trend to that.
7. Remaining body hair in human males longer on the chest
than on the back. No trend to that in any land mammal
(but common in semi-aquatics, v. Sokolov, Nature. 62)
8. Human skin is far more sensitive - each follicle has a
well-structures sensory nerve-organ. No trend to that.
9. Subcutaneous fat layer bonded to the skin. No trend to that
(but cf most aquatics)
In short we are a far cry from the patas or the apes.
Something must have happened to us that did not happen
to them.
http://unauthorised.org/anthropology/sci.anthropology.paleo/january-1995/0225.html

?The aim of the present study was to examine to what extent pH affects
human fibroblast repopulation of an experimental wound in vitro laying
special emphasis on cell migration, DNA synthesis, and alterations in
cell morphology. Wounds were simulated in vitro by partially scraping
off monolayers of human embryonic diploid lung fibroblast and human
periodontal ligament fibroblast-like cells respectively. The wounded
monolayers were cultured at pHs ranging from 7.2 to 8.4. The
experiments were evaluated by autoradiography as well as light and
scanning electron microscopic techniques. A significant, approximately
linear, decrease was noted both in cell migration into and DNA
synthesis in the experimental wounds as a result of pH increase. The
surviving cells in the wounds showed cytoplasmatic vacuoles and
blebbing at pH levels above 7.8. Clinical implications of these
results for endodontic calcium hydroxide treatment are that hydroxyl
ions, diffusing through root dentin, may interfere with vital cell
functions necessary for healing on the root surface.?
http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/histcomp/hayflick-l_all1/index-tc-18.html


?Building moving pictures of gene expression using SS-RT-PCR,
differential display, and RNA array technologies of normal and
patholgoical conditions.
1.	scarless wound healing (1995-date); 
2.	premature craniosynostosis (1998-date); 
3.	bacterial biofilm formation in the middle ear (both bacterial and
mucosal gene expression patterns) (1998-date)
4.	Barrett's metaplasia (2002); 
5.	Colon cancer metastasis (2001) 
http://centerforgenomicsciences.org/faculty/ehrlichg.html

"Consequently, comparative studies of apo(a) sequences in different
Old World monkey species should further our understanding of the
molecular role of Lp(a) in the fibrinolytic process. In contrast to
other Old World monkeys, including rhesus monkey, cynomolgus, and
baboon, the chimpanzee exhibits an elevated level of Lp(a) and a
distinct isoform distribution as compared to humans [Doucet et al. J.
Lipid Res. (1994) 35, 263-270]. Clearly then, the chimpanzee is an
interesting animal model for study of the structure, function, and
potential pathophysiological roles of Lp(a). We have cloned and
sequenced the region of chimpanzee apo(a) cDNA spanning KIV-3 to the
stop codon. The global organization of this region is similar to that
of human apo(a) with the presence of KV, which is absent in rhesus
monkey apo(a). Nucleotide sequence comparison indicates a variation of
1.4% between chimpanzee and man and 5.1% between chimpanzee and rhesus
monkey. The differences concerned single base changes. An Asp57 -->
Asn mutation was detected in KIV-10; this residue is critical to the
LBS of KIV-10 in human apo(a)"
http://moult.umbi.umd.edu/human2004/modules.php?name=Medline&gene=ABL2&PHPSESSID=057aecfd1b1133e3420ce46ff69138a5


?Expanding the functional human mitochondrial DNA database by the
establishment of primate xenomitochondrial cybrids?

http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/17/9131


Additionally, I have written to all of the persons with e-mail
addresses on this site, for further information. Should I get any
responses, I will post them, post haste!
http://www.ipr.or.ke/animalresource/index.html#Projects

I have dug around further, to find virtually nothing. What I found is here:

"The biological response to tissue injury in higher organisms falls
into two main categories: wound repair and regeneration " "In adult
mammals, the form of healing seen most often is wound repair or tissue
regeneration, accomplished by the replacement of mature cells through
cell proliferation (2) or the replenishment of cells, but not organs,
from immature stem cells (3-5). There are, however, several examples
of epimorphic regeneration that exist in mammals. These include the
replacement of antlers (6) and the closure of ear holes, originally
described in the rabbit (7, 8), where a through-and-through hole
placed in the ear is healed to completely normal tissue."
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/20/11792


"Symmetric pairs of standardized excisions were performed on either
side of the forehead of six primates. The half foreheads were
randomized to the botulinum toxin A treatment side versus the placebo
injection side. A panel of three blinded facial surgeons assessed the
cosmetic appearance of the mature scars 3 months postoperatively. The
wounds that had been immobilized with botulinum toxin A were rated as
significantly better in appearance than the control wounds (p < 0.01).
Histologic examination confirmed that all scars were mature."
http://www.plasreconsurg.com/pt/re/prs/abstract.00006534-200005000-00005.htm;jsessionid=E5caE8pIdpOJiLIB0a2ZkmMZikrQ9Itdc66WzSBKSCtHCrZQjhD9!-2044578995!-949856145!9001!-1


Regional expression of the platelet-derived growth factor and its
receptors in a primate graft model of vessel wall assembly.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=293606&tools=bot


Epidermal growth factor receptor distribution in burn wounds.
Implications for growth factor-mediated repair.
http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=443395

Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences (CMLS)
Publisher: Birkhäuser Basel
ISSN: 1420-682X (Paper) 1420-9071 (Online)
DOI: 10.1007/BF02004537
Issue:  Volume 41, Number 3
Date:  March 1985 
"Summary  Two African species of Aspilia (Asteraceae), which are used
medicinally by man and which are eaten by wild chimpanzees in an
unusual manner, were found to contain the potent antibiotic
thiarubrine A as a major leaf phytochemical. Its presence in leaf
material strengthens the view that the feeding behavior of wild
chimpanzees is related to special physiological or pharmacological
effects on the animals." From Google's snippet: "This unusual feeding
behavior by chimpanzees suggested to Wrangham and Nishida ..."
achilleaefolia which contain thiarubrine A to treat wound infections and sores ... 
http://www.springerlink.com/(kllb2ki0pddypj55madwsf30)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,51,54;journal,276,745;linkingpublicationresults,1:101193,1


You may find this book interesting, though it looks unlikely it
contains your answer!
Chimpanzee Material Culture: Implications for Human Evolution
by William C. McGrew 
ISBN: 0521423716 - Cambridge University Press
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gu7-DjJ5FbQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&sig=DNjJELp3Ad4XVcojgYLFibwwjqQ&dq=wound+%2B+chimpanzees&prev=http://scholar.google.com/scholar%3Fq%3Dwound%2B%252B%2Bchimpanzees%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Dactive%26sa%3DG


This search, using these terms : "W. Montagna 1969 Healing of skin
wounds in primates"  lead me to a promising looking page, but the
reports all seem to involve murine and lizard models.
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%20W.%20Montagna%201969%20Healing%20of%20skin%20wounds%20in%20primates.&hl=en&lr=&safe=active&oi=scholart


"... The primates have long hairs covering most ... Logically then,
bolstering the skin?s barrier ... Dressings Vapor permeable Healing
wounds Vapor impermeable Keloids ... "
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mksg/exd/2002/00000011/00000002/art00008

NCBI registration is free, allowing access to many papers:
Stress decreases, while central nucleus amygdala lesions increase,
IL-8 and MIP-1alpha gene expression during tissue healing in non-human
primates.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16574374&query_hl=7&itool=pubmed_docsum


I did find a study on dolphin would healing!
http://www.library.unsw.edu.au/~thesis/adt-NUN/uploads/approved/adt-NUN20030128.113021/public/02whole.pdf




Search Terms
============
chimpanzee model + skin healing + humans
regeneration + extracellular matrix + chimpanzees + wound
wound healing + primates
regeneration + wound repair  + chimpanzees
Pongidae + wound healing
Pan troglodytes + wound healing
Integumentary system + chimpanzee
epidermal cells + primates
epidermal cells + chimpanzees
neoplastic cells + chimpanzees
Montagna + primates or chimpanzees
telemorase + epidermis + chimpanzees
tgf + chimpanzee wound 
elastin + chimpanzee skin
fibroblasts + chimpanzee skin
Primatology portals
chimpanzee surgery + wounds
documentary + Montagna + chipanzees
W. Montagna 1969 Healing of skin wounds in primates
composition + chimpanzee skin 
chimpanzee + phosphatase + skin
matrix molecules + healing + chimpanzee
chimpanzee model + skin healing + humans
keratinocytes + chimpanzee + cutaneous healing
montagna + chimpanzee + video + cutaneous healing 
Follistatin + chimpanzee + wound healing

Clarification of Answer by crabcakes-ga on 14 Apr 2006 00:24 PDT
Hello Wayworn,

  I just wanted to let le tyou know I sent another e-mail to the
primatologist who told me he would replay ASAP!

 Hasta Pronto, Crabcakes

Clarification of Answer by crabcakes-ga on 19 Apr 2006 17:35 PDT
Hello Professor Wayworn,

  I have sent off 4 more e-mails to prominent priatologists in search
of an exact answer. So far, no response from anyone.

  In the meantime, have you seen this site? I'm investigating it further.
http://www.chimpanzoo.org/medical_database.html

  Does your friend still want me to pursue the wheat questiona as well
as the pasta question?

  Sinceramente, Crabcakes

Clarification of Answer by crabcakes-ga on 26 Apr 2006 18:12 PDT
Hello Wayworn! Good news!

I received a wonderful response from the Jane Goodall Primate Center!

Here are some excerpts:

"I too have heard accounts of wild chimpanzees healing from wounds
very quickly and speculation that this is due to robust immune
systems.  I imagine that this is a factor since most of their systems
have not been influenced by antibiotics or other man-made medications.
 Unfortunately, I am not aware of whether there is definite research
to support the role of chimpanzees' skin composition or hair as a
contributor to their healing.

I spoke with Dr. Virginia Landau, staff primatologist for the Jane
Goodall Institute regarding your research and she recommended the book
The Chimpanzees of the Tai Forest by Christophe Boesch.  There is an
anecdote he includes in the book about a chimpanzee who was seriously
wounded only to show up a couple weeks later virtually healed!"

"There were some interesting discussions on how community members care
for injured group members with wounds (p. 32, 248) based on the
severity of the wound.  Though they do not exert the same efforts for
deceased chimpanzees, if a group member has a cut group members will
lick the wound and clear away any debris or insects.  Though
speculation on my part, I would be interested in learning whether the
composition of the chimpanzee's saliva plays a role in the healing
process.  I would be curious to know if extensive research studies
have been completed on cat and dog saliva or why humans often seem to
instinctively put a finger with a papercut in their mouth?"

"Finally, I would suggest searching the Wisconsin Primate Research
Center website.  They have an online service called Primate Info Net
(PIN) that provides access to documents and links to relevant sites
about research in the field of primatology.  You may wish to look up
scientific articles written by Boesch and search for other authors who
have written on the topic."

A file including further information was attached, but I am unable to
open it, and the format is not clear. I have requested from them the 
name of the program, or more information about the file, so I can open
it and share it with you!

Regards, Crabcakes
wayworn-ga rated this answer:5 out of 5 stars and gave an additional tip of: $100.00
It was a very difficult question, and Crabcakes did a superb job!

Comments  
Subject: Re: Wound healing
From: crabcakes-ga on 12 Apr 2006 08:20 PDT
 
Thank you, Wayworn, for the 5 stars and the most generous tip! You are
a pleasure to work with!
Sincerely, Crabcakea

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